history test: constitution to reconstruction

manifest destiny

19th-century belief that the United States was destined by God to expand its territory across North America, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. Supporters saw this expansion as both justified and inevitable, often linking it to ideas of spreading democracy and civilization. However, it also led to the displacement of Native Americans, conflicts with other nations, and debates over slavery in new territories.

Intersectionality

the idea that a person’s experiences and opportunities are shaped by the overlap of multiple social identities—such as race, gender, class, sexuality, and ability.

Abolitionists

people who fought to end slavery in the United States and other parts of the world. They believed slavery was morally wrong and worked through speeches, writings, protests, and political action to end it. Famous abolitionists like Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth, and William Lloyd Garrison played key roles in raising awareness and pushing for the Emancipation Proclamation and, ultimately, the abolition of slavery with the 13th Amendment.

Women’s Rights Movements 

social and political effort to achieve equality for women in areas such as voting, education, employment, and legal rights. It began gaining momentum in the mid-19th century, with leaders like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, who organized events like the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. The movement led to major achievements such as the 19th Amendment (which granted women the right to vote in 1920) and continued through later waves that fought for issues like workplace equality, reproductive rights, and an end to gender discrimination.

Missouri compromise

passed in 1820

maine entered as a free state

missouri entered as a slave state

slavery would be banned north of the 36°30′ latitude line

Some people saw it as a fair solution that kept peace between the North and South, but others—especially abolitionists and pro-slavery groups—were unhappy.

sectionalism

when people or regions in a country prioritize their own interests over the interests of the nation as a whole

North Economy, Population, Transportation vs South

North:Economy: Industrial-based (factories, manufacturing, trade).

Population: Larger and growing quickly due to immigration.

Transportation: More developed—railroads, canals, and roads allowed faster movement of goods and people.

South: Economy: Agriculture-based, focused on cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and rice, relying heavily on slave labor.

Population: Smaller, more rural, with a large enslaved population.

Transportation: Less developed; mostly rivers for moving goods, fewer railroads.

Compromise of 1850

California admitted as a free state (favoring the North).

Territories of New Mexico and Utah could decide on slavery through popular sovereignty (letting the residents vote).

Texas gave up claims to some western lands in exchange for federal government paying its debts.

Slave trade banned in Washington, D.C. (but slavery itself remained legal).

Fugitive Slave Act was strengthened, requiring citizens to help return escaped enslaved people to their owners (favoring the South).

Reactions: Northerners were angry about the strict Fugitive Slave Act, while Southerners were worried about the growing power of free states. The compromise only temporarily eased tensions between the regions.

California’s role: California entering as a free state upset the balance between free and slave states in Congress, which was a major reason the compromise was needed.

Fugitive Slave Act

Required that escaped enslaved people be returned to their owners, even if they were found in a free state. Made it a federal crime to help runaway slaves. Denied accused fugitives the right to a jury trial and allowed commissioners to get paid more for returning a person to slavery than for freeing them.

• Northerners were outraged; many refused to comply, helping fugitives escape through the Underground Railroad.

• Abolitionists increased their activism.

• Southerners supported it because it strengthened their ability to reclaim enslaved people.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

1854

A law that allowed the settlers in Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery, using popular sovereignty, effectively repealing the Missouri Compromise line that had banned slavery north of 36°30′.

• Northerners were outraged because it opened the possibility of slavery spreading into territories that had been free.

• Southerners generally supported it.

The Republican Party formed largely in response to the act, opposing the expansion of slavery.

Dred Scott Decision

Dred Scott was a former slave. lived in a free state ( and was not free) and hence sued for his freedom

main arguments: was that he should be free because he had lived for several years in free territories (Illinois and the Wisconsin Territory) where slavery was illegal. He claimed that living on free soil made him a free man, even after returning to a slave state (Missouri).

Key questions the Supreme Court had to answer. The Supreme Court had to decide (1) whether Dred Scott, as an enslaved person, had the right to sue in federal court, and (2) whether his time living in a free territory made him legally free.

• ruled that Dred Scott was not a citizen and therefore had no right to sue in federal court. 

• He also argued that the Constitution recognized enslaved people as property, and the Fifth Amendment protected a person’s right to own property, meaning Scott could not be freed based on where he lived.

outcome: The Supreme Court ruled against Dred Scott, stating that he remained enslaved. The Court also declared that Congress had no authority to ban slavery in U.S. territories, which invalidated the Missouri Compromise.

Underground Railroads

a secret network of routes and safe houses used by enslaved people to escape from the South to freedom in the North or Canada.

•  Harriet Tubman: The most famous “conductor.” An escaped enslaved woman herself, she made around 13 trips back to the South and helped free over 70 enslaved people, earning the nickname “Moses.”

• Frederick Douglass: A formerly enslaved man and powerful abolitionist who offered shelter and support to fugitives.

It was called “underground” because it was secretive and hidden—its operations had to be kept out of sight to protect both fugitives and helpers from arrest.

punishments: Being captured and punished—often whipped, sold, or even killed. Harsh travel conditions: long journeys at night, lack of food, shelter, or maps. Legal danger: The Fugitive Slave Law (1850) made it illegal to help runaways, so even in free states, they risked being sent back to slavery.

Conductors: People who guided or helped enslaved individuals along the route (like Harriet Tubman).

election of 1860

The Election of 1860 revealed the deep divisions in the United States over slavery. The Democratic Party split between Northern and Southern factions, weakening its chances and allowing Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, to win with less than 40% of the popular vote but a majority in the Electoral College. His victory alarmed the South, which saw it as a threat to slavery and their political power. As a result, Southern states began to secede, starting with South Carolina, leading directly to the Civil War. The election clearly showed the nation’s growing sectionalism between the North and South.

Civil war (1861-1865)

• Union vs. Confederacy: North fought to preserve the Union; South fought to protect slavery and states’ rights.

• Abraham Lincoln: President of the Union; aimed to preserve the nation and later end slavery.

• Robert E. Lee: Confederate general; respected leader who surrendered at Appomattox.

• Union vs. Confederacy Resources: North had more people, factories, and railroads; South relied on agriculture and strong military leadership.

• Fort Sumter (1861): First battle of the war; Confederate attack marked the start of conflict.

• Emancipation Proclamation (1863): Freed enslaved people in Confederate states; shifted the war’s focus to ending slavery.

• Gettysburg & Gettysburg Address (1863): Turning point battle; Lincoln honored fallen soldiers and emphasized unity and equality.

• Appomattox Court House (1865): Lee surrendered to Grant, ending the Civil War.

• Assassination of Abraham Lincoln (1865): Shot by John Wilkes Booth shortly after the war, complicating Reconstruction.

Black codes

• What they were: Rules that limited freedoms, such as controlling where African Americans could work, live, travel, and vote. They often required them to sign labor contracts or face arrest.

• Goal: To maintain white control over the labor and social structure of the South, keeping African Americans economically dependent and socially inferior despite the end of slavery.

KKK

• First KKK: Founded in 1865 by former Confederate soldiers.

• Location: Started in Tennessee, spread throughout the South.

• Goal: To terrorize African Americans and white Republicans, prevent freedmen from voting, and restore white supremacy in the South.

• End of KKK: The federal government passed laws and enforcement acts in the early 1870s, temporarily suppressing the Klan, though it reemerged later.

sharecropping

• System in which freed African Americans and poor whites rented land from landowners and paid with a portion of their crops.

• Often kept workers in debt and poverty, limiting economic freedom after slavery.

federal intervention and abandonment 

• During Reconstruction, the federal government intervened to protect freedmen’s rights through troops and legislation.

• After 1877, federal troops were withdrawn from the South, ending Reconstruction and allowing Southern states to reassert control, often through discriminatory laws.

Reconstruction Amendments

• 13th Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery in the United States.

• 14th Amendment (1868): Granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all people born or naturalized in the U.S.

• 15th Amendment (1870): Prohibited denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude, giving African American men the right to vote.

Jim Crow Laws

• What they were: State and local laws in the South that enforced racial segregation in public places, schools, transportation, and more.

• When they were: Began in the late 1800s (after Reconstruction ended, around 1877) and lasted into the 1960s.

• Why called “Jim Crow”: Named after a racial minstrel character from 19th-century shows that mocked African Americans.

Black codes: Black Codes were laws passed right after the Civil War to limit the freedoms of newly freed African Americans and control their labor, keeping them economically dependent. Jim Crow Laws, which came later in the late 1800s, enforced racial segregation in public spaces, schools, and transportation. While Black Codes focused on restricting rights and maintaining control, Jim Crow Laws institutionalized separation of races and maintained white supremacy for decades.

Plessy V. Ferguson

1896

What it was about: A Supreme Court case challenging racial segregation laws.

• Law challenged: Homer Plessy challenged Louisiana’s Separate Car Act of 1890, which required separate train cars for Black and white passengers.

• Plessy’s main argument: The law violated the 13th and 14th Amendments, which abolished slavery and guaranteed equal protection under the law.

• Supreme Court ruling: The Court ruled against Plessy in a 7-1 decision, upholding segregation.

• Doctrine established: “Separate but equal”, allowing racial segregation as long as facilities were considered equal.

• Impact: The decision legitimized segregation laws and led to the widespread adoption of Jim Crow laws throughout the South.