Adult

Age effects

One of the three fundamental effects examined in developmental research

Ageism

The untrue assumption that chronological age is the main determinant of human characteristics and that one age is better than another.

Biological forces

One of four basic forces of development that includes all genetic and health-related factors.

Biopsychosocial framework

Way of organizing the biological

Case study

An intensive investigation of individual people.

Cohort

A group of people born at the same point in time or within a specific time span.

Cohort effects

One of the three basic influences examined in developmental research

Confounding

Any situation in which one cannot determine which of two or more effects is responsible for the behaviors being observed.

Continuity–discontinuity controversy

The debate over whether a particular developmental phenomenon represents smooth progression over time (continuity) or a series of abrupt shifts (discontinuity).

Correlational study

An investigation in which the strength of association between variables is examined.

cross-sectional study

A developmental research design in which people of different ages and cohorts are observed at one time of measurement to obtain information about age differences.

Demographers

People who study population trends.

Dependent variable

Behaviors or outcomes measured in an experiment.

Emerging adulthood

A period when individuals are not adolescents but are not yet fully adults.

Experiment

A study in which participants are randomly assigned to experimental and control groups and in which an independent variable is manipulated to observe its effects on a dependent variable so that cause-and-effect relations can be established.

Gerontology

The study of aging from maturity through old age.

Independent variable

The variable manipulated in an experiment.

Life-cycle forces

One of the four basic forces of development that reflects differences in how the same event or combination of biological

Life-span perspective

A view of the human life span that divides it into two phases: childhood/adolescence and young/middle/late adulthood.

Longitudinal study

A developmental research design that measures one cohort over two or more times of measurement to examine age changes.

Meta-analysis

A technique that allows researchers to synthesize the results of many studies to estimate relations between variables

microgenetic study

A special type of longitudinal design in which participants are tested repeatedly over a span of days or weeks

nature–nurture issue

A debate over the relative influence of genetics and the environment on development

nonnormative influences

Random events that are important to an individual but do not happen to most people

normative age-graded influences

Experiences caused by biological

normative history-graded influences

Events that most people in a specific culture experience at the same time

Plasticity

The belief that capacity is not fixed

population pyramid

Graphic technique for illustrating population trends

primary aging

The normal

psychological forces

One of the four basic forces of development that includes all internal perceptual

Reliability

The ability of a measure to produce the same value when used repeatedly to measure the identical phenomenon over time

Secondary aging

Developmental changes that are related to disease

Self-reports

People’s answers to questions about a topic of interest

sequential designs

Types of developmental research designs involving combinations of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

sociocultural forces

One of the four basic forces of development that include interpersonal

stability–change issue

A debate over the degree to which people remain the same over time as opposed to being different

systematic observation

A type of measurement involving watching people and carefully recording what they say or do

tertiary aging

Rapid losses occurring shortly before death

time-of-measurement effects

One of the three fundamental effects examined in developmental research

universal versus context-specific development controversy

A debate over whether there is a single pathway of development

Validity

The degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure

Activation imaging approach

Attempts to directly link functional brain activity with cognitive behavioral data.

Amygdala

The region of the brain

Antioxidants

Compounds that protect cells from the harmful effects of free radicals.

Axon

A structure of the neuron that contains neurofibers.

Cerebellum

The part of the brain that is associated with motor functioning and balance equilibrium

Cerebral cortex

The outermost part of the brain consists of two hemispheres (left and right).

Compensation-Related Utilization of Neural Circuits Hypothesis (CRUNCH) model

A model that describes how the aging brain adapts to neurological decline by recruiting additional neural circuits (in comparison to younger adults) to perform tasks adequately.

Compensatory changes

Changes that allow older adults to adapt to the inevitable behavioral decline resulting from changes in specific areas of the brain.

Corpus callosum

A thick bundle of neurons that connects the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

Default network of the brain

The regions of the brain that are most active at rest.

Dendrites

A structural feature of a neuron that acts like antennas to receive signals from other nearby neurons

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

A type of magnetic resonance imaging that measures the diffusion of water molecules in tissue to study connections of neural pathways in the brain

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with higher-level cognitive functioning

Dopaminergic system

Neuronal systems that use dopamine as their major neurotransmitter

Executive functions

Include the ability to make and carry out plans

Free radicals

Substances that can damage cells

Functional neuroimaging

Provides an indication of brain activity but not high anatomical detail

Hemispheric Asymmetry Reduction in OLDer adults (HAROLD) model

A model that explains the empirical findings of reduced lateralization in prefrontal lobe activity in older adults

Hippocampus

Located in the medial-temporal lobe

Limbic system

A set of brain structures involved with emotion

Neural stem cells

(Also known as neural progenitors or neural precursor cells) are cells in the brain and spinal cord (the central nervous system

Neuro-correlational approach

An approach that attempts to relate measures of cognitive performance to measures of brain structure or functioning

Neuroanatomy

The study of the structure of the brain

Neuroimaging

A set of techniques in which pictures of the brain are taken in various ways to provide understanding of both normal and abnormal cognitive aging

Neurons

A brain cell

Neuropsychological approach

Compares brain functioning of healthy older adults with adults displaying various pathological disorders in the brain

Neuroscience

The study of the brain

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that carry information signals between neurons across the synapse

Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT)

A theory that proposes that intelligence comes from a distributed and integrated network of neurons in the parietal and frontal areas of the brain

Plasticity

Involves the interaction between the brain and the environment and is mostly used to describe the effects of experience on the structure and functions of the neural system

Positivity effect

When an individual remembers more positive information relative to negative information

Posterior-Anterior Shift in Aging (PASA) model

Model of cognitive aging reflecting from occipital to frontal processing that is thought to reflect age-related compensation

Prefrontal cortex

Part of the frontal lobe that is involved in executive functioning

Scaffolding Theory of Cognitive Aging-Revised (STAC-r)

A model based on the idea that age-related changes in one’s ability to function reflect a life-long process of compensating for cognitive decline by recruiting additional brain areas and takes life-course factors that enhance or deplete neural resources into account

Structural neuroimaging

A set of techniques that provides highly detailed images of anatomical features in the brain

Synapse

The gap between neurons across which neurotransmitters travel

Terminal branches

The endpoints in a neuron that help transmit signals across the synapse.

Theory of Mind (ToM)

The ability that helps us understand that other people have beliefs

White matter

Neurons that are covered by myelin that serve to transmit information from one part of the cerebral cortex to another or from the cerebral cortex to other parts of the brain

White matter hyperintensities (WMH)

Abnormalities in the brain often found in older adults; correlated with cognitive decline

Angina pectoris

A painful condition caused by temporary constriction of blood flow to the heart.

Atherosclerosis

A process by which fat is deposited on the walls of arteries.

Atherosclerosis

A process by which fat is deposited on the walls of arteries.

Cataracts

Opaque spots on the lens of the eye.

Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)

An interruption of the blood flow in the brain.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

A family of age-related lung diseases that block the passage of air and cause abnormalities inside the lungs.

Climacteric

The transition during which a woman’s reproductive capacity ends and ovulation stops.

Congestive heart failure

A condition occurring when cardiac output and the ability of the heart to contract severely decline

Cross-linking

Random interaction between proteins that produce molecules that make the body stiffer.

Emphysema

The most serious form of COPD is characterized by the destruction of the membranes around the air sacs in the lungs.

Free radicals

Unstable chemicals produced randomly in normal metabolism that are thought to cause aging.

Glaucoma

A disease in the eye caused by improper drainage of fluid in the eye resulting in internal damage and progressive loss of vision.

Hypertension

A disease in which one’s blood pressure is too high.

Menopausal hormone therapy (MHT)

Low doses of estrogen

Menopause

The cessation of the release of eggs by the ovaries.

Myocardial infarction (MI)

Also called heart attack

Osteoarthritis

A form of arthritis marked by gradual onset and progression of pain and swelling

Osteoporosis

A degenerative bone disease more common in women in which bone tissue deteriorates severely to produce honeycomb-like bone tissue.

Perimenopause

The time of transition from regular menstruation to menopause.