Option G- Urban Environments (from notes)

informal/formal activities

informal/formal activities

activities that are either:

• untaxed and unregulated, or

• formally taxed and regulated

Gentrification

improvement of residential areas by residents and immigrants, often changes the economic profile of an area and makes it inaccessible for its initial residents

counter-urbanisation

the movement of population away from larger to smaller urban areas (eg new towns, satellite suburbs)

re-urbanisation/urban renewal

development of activities to increase residential population densities within a preexisting city

urban circular system

a sustainable city in which there is the recycling, reuse and reduction of resources, renewable energy and reduced ecological footprint

suburbanisation

the outward growth of towns to engulf surrounding settlements; may cause a conurbation

urban area

built up area that forms part of a city or town

urban ecological footprint

the amount of land required to sustain a population with appropriate resources and assimilate their waste

characteristics of an urban settlement

an area of habituation that provides services for payment for the surrounding countryside

physical factors influencing site

• access to water

• hospitable climate

• agriculture → arable/fertile land

• topography

• space (defence, expansion)

functions and land use

• accomodation

• mining town

• transport hub

• manufacturing centre

• fishing village

• administrative centre

Urban layout case study

New York

• commercial land in manhattan, centre of queens and staten island

• brooklyn, manhattan and the bronx have mixed residential and commercial

• staten island, bronx, outside queens is industry and manufacturing

Hierarchy of Settlements

measured by settlement size, generated wealth and number of jobs

• hinterland is the hexagonal area around a city that is supported by it

• distance decay- people will travel less far for lower quality goods

sphere of influence- where people come from to buy things

• threshold population- amount of people to support a shop

• low order goods- bought frequently eg food

• high order goods- bought less often eg appliances

Megacities

> 10 million people

• economic growth, rural-urban migration

• dominated by young adults due to birth rates

• contain 7% of world’s population

• all but four megacities in developing regions, 12 in china, 34 megacities in 2020

The Burgess Model

1925

assumptions

• city is flat

• easy transport

• high land value in city centre

• oldest buildings in city centre

• poorer classes must live near work

criticisms

• zones undefined, not mixed

• oldest housing not always in centre

• cities rarely boundless or flat

The Hoyt Model

1939

assumptions

• wealthy live near transport

• cars affordable

• similar land = similar land use

• certain functions repel each other

criticisms

• low cost housing doesn’t guarantee transport

• no planning controls

• discounts suburbs

• discounts topography

Harn and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Model

1945

assumptions

• cbd is near original retail

• warehousing/light industry adjacent to cbd

• heavy industry on outskirts

• residential in remaining space

criticisms

• may not apply to asia

• non existence of abrupt divisions

• negligence of building height

Bid rent theory

• peak land value intersection- point closest to cbd (0,0 on graph)

• model shows pattern of economic activity

• land closer to the cbd is owned by more competitive industries such as retail, while less competitive industries operate on the outskirts

• land closest to cbd = highest profit = most valuable

factors affecting location of residential areas

physical factors

• location of land features eg mountains

• aesthetic beauty and closeness to nature

• proximity to services

• closeness to cbd

land values

• high density in medium closeness: too close = expensive, too far = not valuable

• high quality housing is newly built on the outskirts - lower class needs to be close to cbd to find work

• suburban density decreased since 1980s

ethnicity

• ethnic groups live together to seek cultural support and community

• waves of migration happening at the same time, move to new developments - becomes a hub for that culture

urban deprivation

• physical indicators - housing quality, pollution, crime

• social indicators- health crime, education, unemployment, lone parent families

• economic indices- available jobs, income

• political indices- voting, community action

slums and squatter settlements

• 980 million slum dwellers globally in 2015

• 78.2% of urban population is in LICs

informal economic activity

• dual economy- formal economy and informal economy

• informal economy

  • bazaar economy- small scale trade establishments, 45% of city employment, low price competition

  • street economy- hawkers, shoe shiners, beggars, thieves, prostitutes, 20% of labour force, low earnings

Urban social deprivation case study

Dharavi

• 45% of Mumbai lives in slums

• 1 million people live in Dharavi- 175 hectares

• tin shacks, tarp/tin roofs, upgrading to brick

• many have successful businesses or careers

• markets, tourism, personal small businesses eg laundry

• formal and informal economy

• average $3 per day- cheap to outsource here

• recycling in Mumbai

• only slum with a billion dollar economy

• water flows for 2h a day, but most homes have electricity, public toilets

• authorities turn a blind eye to environmental waste

• free state education till 14

• high sense of community

Centrifugal population movements

away from city centre

• suburbanisation

• counter-urbanisation

Rural Urban migration

• urbanisation- more people moving to urban areas

• natural increase- birth rate is higher than death rate

• push factors- lack of services, jobs

• pull factors- more services, jobs

Rural Urban Migration Case Study

China

• male family members move to cities and send money home to family

• labour jobs with low education

• close to 1 billion Chinese live in urban areas in 2030s

• Hukou arrangement- people must stay in certain provinces to access rights and services, registered by household

• many villages demolishes to urbanise, removes jobs for farmers

• 70% of China will live in cities if the govt hits its goal

• urban consumers feed city conglomerates

deindustrialisation

caused by:

• resources exhausted, materials expensive

• automation/new technology

• competition from rivals/reduction in demand

• lack of capital, subsidy withdrawal

• rationalisation- making things more efficient drains company of self sufficiency

Urban Social Deprivation/Deindustrialisation Case Study

Detroit’s Vehicle Industry

• Packard Auto Plant - 3.5 million square feet, 36000 employed

• closed in 1958 due to reduced demand, increased cost (globalisation; competition)

• 2 million population in 1958 has steadily declined since

• riots in 1967 due to joblessness and suburbanisation

• cleanup crews salvage from abandoned lots

• yet, people don’t always report the good

Cycle of Urban Deprivation in Detroit

social + emotional deprivation → lack of education → poor work opportunities → poor relationships → inadequate parenting → inadequate support measures → social + emotional deprivation

Urban microclimates

• distinctive climate of a small scale area

• affected by:

  • radiation and sunshine- scattered by dust

  • clouds and fogs

  • temperatures- regulation, sun/shade

  • pressure and winds- gusting around tall buildings

  • humidity

  • precipitation

• urban air pollution- impacts 50% of world’s urban population

  • cars and industry

  • LICs cannot cope as well

Urban heat island effect

heat increases due to dark roads and roofs absorbing heat, lack of tree cover, emissions of dust and gas

Case Study: Contested Land

Slum Clearance in Rio

• 2016 olympics caused the clearance of central favelas to make space for the grounds

• drug gangs removed

• average house price rose by 165% between 2012-2016

• 170,000 people displaced- Favela de Metro 1000 residents displaced for parking

Urban Growth Projections

• countries in Africa predicted to grow most, along with Southeast Asia

• many large countries reaching maximum population and growth is starting to slow

• Global population expected to max out at 11 billion in 2100

Resilient cities

• economically productive- employment

• socially inclusive- mobility, living space

• environmentally friendly- climate change adaptation/mitigation, footprint

  • copes with acute and chronic threats

if not: social unrest, environmental damage, high emissions, low gdp, high unemployment, congestion, homelessness

Threats to cities

Chronic

• overtaxation

• inefficient politicians

• unemployment, violence,

• resource shortages and waste disposal

Acute

• natural disasters

• disease

• terrorism

• war

Eco Cities

• compact cities = less congestion, overpricing, pollution

• achieved by

  • reducing fossil fuels

  • locally treating waste

  • sufficient green spaces

  • reclaiming brownfield spaces

  • encouraging community involvement

  • conserving non-renewables, using renewables

Case Study: Eco Cities

Masdar, UAE

• capital of United Arab Emirates

• no cars- parked outside, trains used

• 150 live there, ideally 90,000

• Masdar Institute = graduate research facility

• light management, air compression to cope with dry climate

• oriented 45 degrees off sun = 15 degrees cooler than Abu Dhabi

• concentrated solar panels using mirrors to capture more sun

• motion sensors, water recycling