Russia and its Rulers Interpretation

Alexander II Government Structures

1861 - Council of Ministers
1864 - Zemstva

Zemstva characteristics

Representation for peasants.
74% of representatives were nobility.
Restrictions after 1878. 32% of spending on healthcare and education.

AII Army

1.4m peasant conscripts. Administration reform 1864. Service time reduced to 15 years from 25, conscription made universal. Motivation for emancipation.

AII Peasant Opposition

Doubled every five years after 1850.
647 riots after emancipation: Bezdna 1861 killed 70.

AII Worker Opposition

1874 - Narodnikis launch Going to the People. By Autumn 1600 arrested.

AII Political Opposition

People's Will led by Mikhailov from 1879. Assassination 1881.

Emancipation results

23 million freed. Britain still produced 14 hectolitres of grain per acre to Russia's 6. Peasants gained 96% of their former land. 49 years of barshchina. Grain output rose by 2% p/a 1860s-90s.

AII Industry

Saw industrialisation as a way to quell peasant unrest. Under Reutern - railway construction increases sevenfold, average 6% growth. Loop (textiles) and Hughes (steel).

Serfdom quote

"better to begin to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it abolishes itself from below".

Impacts on serfs

Could marry without consent. Internal passports - 1.3m in 1860s to 5m in 1880s. 75% households were considered to be 'average' or 'tolerable'.

AII Education

Put under the Zemstva - Ministry of National Enlightenment. 1863 - private schools allowed. 1856-78 number of primary schools tripled. Little financial aid given to students.

AII Judiciary

1864 - trial by jury, local cases run by Zemstva. Clampdown after 1866 assassination attempt and 1878 trial of the 50.

AII Nationalities +ve

Jews allowed out of the Pale. Finnish diet 1863, constitution 1865.

AII Nationalities -ve

Polish Uprising 1863 - Russification. Ukrainian peasants lost 30% of their land.

Crimea

1853-56. Casualties - 530,000 out of 890,000 troops. Spurred great reforms - Menshikov.

PG Government

Associated with old guard. No elections held, same as under NII. Political parties allowed since 1905.

PG repression/judiciary

Okhrana disbanded, replaced with people's militia. Death penalty abolished, trial by jury introduced. Army supports Soviet - 150,000 in October.

Dual Powerlessness

Shared Tauride Palace with Petrograd Soviet - elected unlike PG.

Petrograd Soviet Order

Order Number One - Army subservient to the Soviet in political matters.

PG April

Lenin returns with his April Theses - Peace, land, bread and all power to the Soviets.

PG June

June Days - 300,000 protest the PG. June Offensive - 400,000 deaths, desertion rampant.

PG July

July Days - workers and Krondstadt sailors protest the PG. Belated Bolshevik leadership, so fails. Arrests, Lenin fled to Finland.

PG August

Kornilov Affair. Bolsheviks released from prison (Trotsky) and armed. Kornilov never makes it to St Petersburg. Bolshevik membership grows from 10,000 to 250,000 by October.

PG Freedoms/nationalities

Freedom of speech, to strike (2.4m March-October). Finland independence. Soldiers given civilian rights.

PG economy

2m join trade unions. Lack of land reform leads to protests.

PG War cost

3bn roubles. Price of grain doubled to encourage peasants to sell. Rouble worth 1% of 1913 value by 1921.

Khrushchev Aims

Consolidation of position - Beria (d. 1953). Economy - release the 8m in camps - 15% of population.

Khrushchev censorship/repression.

More freedom of speech (Glasnost, 65,000 books published p/a late 50s). End of terror, limiting secret police (11,000 political prisoners by 1960), end of cult of personality.

Khrushchev Government structure

Same as Stalin.

Secret Speech

1956. Criticised: Abuses of power, Cult of the individual, Purges, WW2 leadership.

Stalin's abuses

70% of the 1934 Congress of the Central Committee shot. Committee didn't meet 1939-52, therefore blameless.

Khrushchev did not support De-Stalinisation

Praised pre-1934 Stalin. Stalin's 'successes' more than 'mistakes'. Backtracked after unrest in Georgia June. Told Zhou Enlai that Stalin was a 'true Marxist-Leninist'.

Khrushchev Political Opposition

Defeated Presidium attempt to oust him 1957. Malenkov made director of Siberia power station, Molotov ambassador to Mongolia.

Khrushchev Worker Opposition

Novocherkassk 1962 in response to food shortages/prices. 26 killed. Would never have happened under Stalin, but still oppressive.

Khrushchev Leniency/repression changes

Molotov and Malenkov not executed. KGB/MVD vs NKVD. 7,500 members posthumously rehabilitated. 2m prisoners released 1954-58, 2/3 camps shut down.

Khrushchev Censorship and Propaganda - less and more

Glasnost - 60m read papers by early 60s. Attacked unofficial art 1961.

Khrushchev Political reforms

Presidium 1953 for collective leadership - ousted him 1964. Sought advice from scientists e.g. Lysenko.

Khrushchev repression (nationalities/religion)

Poznan Revolts and Hungarian Uprising crushed with tanks.
2/3 churches closed by 1959. Moscow Synagogues closed 1961.

Khrushchev working conditions

7 hour work day. Min wage doubled by 1964. College fees abolished. Plan to make everyone over 15 to learn a trade for 2 years - dropped. Number in poverty dropped from 100m to 30m 1958-67.

Khrushchev Agriculture

Investment grew from 3% to 12.8% of budget 1954-59. Forced to grow corn everywhere despite climate after 1958 Iowa visit. 250% rise in farm income 1952-56 due to high prices. 30% increase in number of tractors available. Forced to import food in 1963.

Khrushchev industry

1959-65 Seven Year Plan, more realistic target than Stalin's. 60% increase in consumer goods (5% below target). Sixth FYP abandoned after 2 years.

Virgin Lands Scheme

1953. 46m hectares sown. Initial promise (65% output increase 1954) but harsh climate and monoculture causes failure.

Cold War Tension

Warsaw Pact 1955.
30bn spent on Space Race.
Hungary 1956 - 250,000 fled.
Sino-Soviet Split by 1957.
Berlin Wall 1961.
Cuba 1962.

Cold War Agreements

1955 Austria agreement.
1955 recognise West Germany.
1963 Partial Test Ban.
1963 Direct Hotline.