8 - Endocrine, Cardiovascular, Immunology

hormones (put IN the blood)

what are the products of endocrine?

bile, sweat, saliva, semen, breast milk (products end up out of body/diff body cavity)

what are the products of exocrine?

1. neural

2. hormonal

3. humoral

what are the 3 ways of hormone release through systems?

neural hormone release

an action potential causes hormone release (ex: SNS causes epinephrine release)

hormonal (hormone release)

hormones causes the release of TROPIC hormones (ex: ACTH triggers release of hormones from adrenal cortex)

tropic hormones

a class of hormones that regulate the function of other endocrine glands by stimulating growth, secretion, or both.

does NOT act on target tissues to produce a physiological response, but instead act on other endocrine glands

ex: TSH, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), FSH, LH, growth hormone

humoral hormone release

something in the blood, not itself a hormone, causing hormone release (ex: glucose regulate insulin/glucagon)

posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

part of the brain that’s made of nervous system to store + release 2 hypothalamic hormones (oxytocin and ADH)

it’s being controlled by the hypothalamus

hypothalamus

what organ/structure in the brain controls the posterior pituitary?

anterior pituitary (adrenohypophysis)

part of the brain that’s made of nervous system made of gland tissue to secrete 6 major hormones (FLAT PiG)

nervous tissues

posterior pituitary is made up of ______________ (nervous/gland) tissue

gland tissue

anterior pituitary is made up of ______________ (nervous/gland) tissue

1. FSH

2. LH

3. ACTH

4. TSH

5. prolactin

6. growth hormone

what are the 6 hormones that are secreted by anterior pituitary? (FLAT PiG)

neurons produce hormones → transport them down axons and release via action potential into the blood stream

how does the posterior pituitary get hormones to the target organs?

hormone making cells in the hypothalamus → travel to portal veins → anterior pituitary’s own hormone making cells

how does the anterior pituitary get hormones to the target organs?

pressure gradient (forward momentum)

in the arteries, blood moves by _______________ (forward momentum) from high to low pressure area

normal body movement (anything movement that ‘squishes’ the vessel)

in veins, blood moves by _____________ and contains valves

lymphatic system

system that carries lymph to help replenish the loss of fluid as blood travels along capillary bed → carry it back to the heart. also picks up bacteria and pathogens

lymph nodes

concentrated areas of white blood cells (leukocytes) in diff body areas that destroy pathogen/warn immune system

CO, TPR

blood pressure is DIRECTLY related to ______ and ________

peripheral resistance

how hard it is to move blood through the vessels

vasodilation (increase diameter and flow, decrease BP)

vessel lengthens (increase length, increase BP)

what are the factors that increase TPR? (answer has 2, but you know there’s many)

to avoid cardiac tetany (stable, constant contraction for awhile from CONSTANT AP)

why are cardiac action potentials prolonged? (voltage gated Ca2+ channels open longer)

tetany

stable, constant contractions for awhile from constant action potential (good for skeletal cells, bad for cardiac cells)

autoarrhythmic cardiac cells

cardiac cells with higher resting potential (~-40 mV) than cardiac cells, AND the resting potential is unstable → more time in action potential

atrial, ventricular

__________ and __________ muscle cells are NOT connected due to no gap junctions ONLY valves, and therefore need autorhythmic cells

autorhythmic cells (SA node, AV node, purkinje fibers)

how do atrium stimulate action potential to ventricles?

AV node

autorhythmic cells that delay impulse to allow atria to contract BEFORE ventricles

SA node

It is located atop R atrium. ___________ fires first and stimulates AV node in the atria

1. hematocrit (RBC)

2. leukocytes (WBC, platelets)

3. plasma (water, electrolytes, glc, hormones, plasma prots, lipoproteins, etc.)

what are the THREE components of blood?

RBC

what is the component of hematocrit?

WBC and platelets

what are the contents of leukocytes

water, electrolytes, glucose, hormones, plasma proteins, lipoproteins

what are the contents of plasma in blood?

plasma, hemoglobin (Hb), cooperative binding, release O2

when traveling in blood, oxygen… ?

1. 3% dissolves in ___________

2. 97% bound to ______________ in RBCs

   1. hemoglobin has _____________ to O2 → produce sigmoid curve b/w [O2] and % saturated Hb

   2. Hb has the tendency to ____________ O2 instead of keeping it

plasma, hemoglobin, bicarbonate

TISUES CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + CO₃- LUNGS

when traveling in blood, CO2:

1. 7% dissolves in ________

2. 20% dissolves in _________

3. 73% travel as ____________ in plasma

cooperative binding

refers to phenomenon where the binding of a ligand (ex: oxygen) to one binding site on a multimeric protein (ex: Hb) influences the affinity of subsequent binding sites for the same ligand.

1. lungs are high in O2 → CO₃- and H+ high → gets rid of CO2 as its end goal

2. tissues high in CO2 → converts it to CO₃-

explain this:

TISUES CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + CO₃- LUNGS

1. physical barrier

2. chemical barrier

3. cells

what are the 3 types of non-specific defense of the immune system?

physical barrier of the immune system

includes skin, mucus, blood-brain barrier, hair, wax, oils

chemical barrier of the immune system

includes mucus, stomach acid, lysozyme, and histamine

cell defense of the immune system

includes macrophasges, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, NK cells

immunity

specific defense for specific pathogens (energy expensive)

antigen

foreign protein (specific) that triggers an immune response (ex: SARS-CoV-2 spike protein)

antibody

specific protein marker made by the body in response to the antigen

B cells

immune cell that gives humoral (in the blood) immunity by creating antibodies and secrete them into the blood stream + lymph nodes (only ONE type of antibody per ____ cell)

carries an antigen-receptor specific to the antibody it makes on its surface

one type

each B cell makes ___________ (how many) types of antibodies

antigen-receptor

B cells carry a ______________ specific to the antibody it makes on its surface

if an antigen binds to this → activated and clone itself to secrete that antibody

plasma cells

B cells clones from after the pathogenic antigen binds to the antigen-receptor

T cells

immune cells that directs cell-mediated immunity (non-humoral - does not interact with blood)

killer T cell self-receptor

T cell structure that’s used to ID its own body cells

1. self-receptor

2. antigen receptor

bacteria must trigger BOTH to induce a reaction from T cells

what are the 2 types of receptors on killer T cells?

1. killer T cells

2. helper T cells

what are the 2 types of T cells

helper T cells

type of T cells that secrete chemicals (cytokines) that allow B cells and killer T cells to proliferate (clone themselves)

cytokines

what chemical(s) do helper T cells secrete?

T cells (cell mediated response) + B cells (humoral response)

what is adaptive immunity?

MHC I cells

type of immune cell found on ALL cells and allow cells to display its cell contents on cell surface (does NOT know the difference between normal cell and viral protein)

killer T cells look for MHC I displays on cells to look for viral marker

1. antigen receptor binds to the top display

2. self receptor binds to the bottom display

how do killer T cells differentiate between normal and viral contents in the body with regards to MHC I cells?

MHC II cells

immune cells found on B cells and macrophages → allow these cells to display ANYTHING CONSUMED by B cells and macrophages

MHC II

macrophages consume a bacteria → displays the bacteria’s antigens using ______________

then, helper T cells performs receptor mediated endocytosis on ___________ that display the pathogenic antigen

MHC I is found on ALL cells → displays its cell content

MHC II found ONLY on B cells and macrophages → display what they ate

what’s the difference between MHC I and MHC II cells?

primary immune response

1st exposure to antigen that lasts 7-10 days where immune system initiates process of mounting a response to kill the antigen

1. recognition of antigen (antigen presenting cells present antigen)

2. activation of lymphocytes (antigen presentation triggers antigen-specific T cells and B cells)

3. differentiation and effector function (activated T cells differentiate to effector T cells → cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells) (activated B cells differentiate into plasma cells)

4. antibody production

1. recognition of antigen (antigen presenting cells present antigen)

2. activation of lymphocytes (antigen presentation triggers antigen-specific T cells and B cells)

3. differentiation and effector function (activated T cells differentiate to effector T cells → cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells) (activated B cells differentiate into plasma cells)

4. antibody production

what are the steps to primary immune response?

to make antibody, activate T cells (killer T and helper T), and memory cells

what are the goals of primary immune response

memory cells

formed by B cells and will be activated if re-exposure occurs → makes antibody and active T cells

antigen, memory cells, primary exposure to the pathogen

vaccines have the proteins that make the specific pathogen’s __________ → trigger an immune response and activate new ______________ without ________________

foreign, self

immune system attacks ____________ antigen, not __________ antigen

self-reactive lymphocytes

type of immune cells that attack its own antigen and cause an autoimmune disease

destruction of self-recognizing B cells - Bone marrow

destruction of self-recognizing T cells - Thymus

how to eliminate self-reactive lymphocytes?