Self, Mind, & Society: Exam I

Psychology

The accumulated body of psychological knowledge (knowledge pertaining to brain, behavior, social, or mental processes) that has been generated through the systemic application of the scientific method

Psychological Frame of Mind

Scientific approach: Critical thinking, skepticism, objectivity curiosity

Critical thinking (Psychological Frame of Mind)

The process of reflecting deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating evidence

Skepticism (Psychological Frame of Mind)

Challenge whether a supposed fact is true

Objectivity (Psychological Frame of Mind)

Looking at evidence without being biased, using empirical method

Curiosity (Psychological Frame of Mind)

Wanting to know why the world the way it is

Clinical Psychology

studies and treats psychological disorders (why things go wrong)

Positive Psychology

Emphasizes human strengths (why things go right)

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

Integrated philosophy and the natural sciences to create the academic discipline of psychology

Wilhelm Wundt’s goals and focus

Crated structuralism. His goal was to identify the structures of the mind (What?). His method was through introspection, systematic, detailed self-report of thoughts and feelings

William James (1842-1910)

Created functionalism. Approach to mental processes by emphasizing the functions (Why?)

William James’ goals and focus

His goal was to explore the purposes of mind and behavior. His focus was on the mind’s interactions with the outside world and stream of consciousness.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Created natural selection. His principle of an evolutionary process in which organisms that are better adapted to their environment will survive and produce more offspring

Contemporary approaches to psychology

Biological, behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive, evolutionary, sociocultural

Biological Approach

Focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system. The brain is the physical basis of all thoughts and emotions

Behavioral Approach

Focus on visible interactions with the environment—behaviors. What people do-not what they think or feel. Behavior is the result of enviornment determinants

Notable Behaviorists

Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B.F. Skinner

Psychodynamic Approach

Focus on unconscious thought

Sigmund Freud

Founder of the psychodynamic approach. Behavior driven by unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses, conflict between biological drives and demands of society, early childhood family experiences, psychoanalysis

Humanistic Approach

Focus on positive human qualities. Behavior not controlled by environment or unconscious impulses, instead, people have the capacity to choose their behavior—free will

Notable Humanistic theorists

Carl rogers, Abraham Maslow

Cognitive Approach

Focus on cognitions and mental processing. Mental process: attention, perception, memory problem-solving. Information processing: how humans interpret incoming info, weigh it, store it, and apply it. Consciousness: inner, mental life

Evolutionary Approach

Focus on evolution as origin of behavior. Evolutionary explanations: adaptation, reproduction, natural selection

Notable Evolutionary Psychologist

David Buss

Sociocultural Approach

Focus on social and cultural environments. Understanding behavior requires knowing about the cultural context in which the behavior occurs

Careers in Psychology

Practice/applied, research, or teaching

Scientific Method

Observe, hypothesize, test, draw conclusions, evaluate a theory

Observe (Scientific Method)

Observe with curiosity and critical thinking—why is it the way it is? Formulate or challenge a theory to explain observations

Hypothesize (Scientific method)

An educated guess derived from a theory, can be tested

Test (Scientific method)

Test hypothesis through empirical research.

Variable (Test)

Anything that can change

Operational definition (Test)

How variable will be measured

Data Analysis (Test)

Crunching numbers mathematically

Draw Conclusions (Scientific Method)

Does the data support the hypothesis?

Evaluate theory (Scientific Method)

Evaluation by the scientific community, ongoing process, replication, reliability

Descriptive Research

Focuses on providing a detailed and systematic account of existing conditions using methods such as surveys, observations, and case studies (qualitative and quantitive)

Correlational Research

Goal is to identify relationships using the correlation coefficient from -1 to 1. Strength of relationship and direction of relationship

Scatter Plots

Each point represents a single observation to show relationship.

Positive Correlation

When a relationship where two variables move in the same direction. Ex.) The longer the lecture, the more yawns

Negative Correlation

When two variables move in opposite directions: as one variable increases, the other decreases, vice-versa. Ex.) The longer the lecture, the lower student attentiveness there is

Correlation & Causation

Correlation does not equal causation

Longitudinal Designs

A type of correlational research. Measuring variables in multiple waves over time. Can suggest potential causal relationships.

Big Data

Use of large, naturally occuring sources of data (public records, online tracking), represents actual behavior and object events, could be more accurate than self-report

Experimental Research

Experiments are one of the few research designs that allow you to directly test why something happens, that is, to test for cause and effect

Variables (Experiments)

Independent and dependent

Independent Variable

Variable that is manipulated

Dependent Variable

Variable that is measured

Groups (Experimental Research)

Experimental and control

Experimental Group

Exposed to manipulation of independent variable

Control Group

Treated equally, except no manipulation

Validity

External and internal

External validity

Do results generalize/applicable to the real world.

Internal Validity

The degree to which a study or experiment accurately concludes that the independent variable, not other factors, caused the observed changes in the dependent variable

Bias & Expectations

Experimenter bias, demand characteristics, research participant bias, placebo effect, double-blind experiment

Sensation and Perception Psychologist

Researchers who study sensation and perception focus on the physical system and psychological processes that allow us to experience the world

Developmental Psychology

Concerned with how people become who they are, throughout the lifespan, concentrated on the biological and environmental factors that contribute to human development

Personality Psychology

Study topics such as traits, goals, motives, genetics, personality development, and well-being

Social Psychology

Deals with people’s interactions with one another, relationships, social perceptions, social cognition, and attitudes. Interested in the influence of groups on our thinking and behavior and in the ways that they group to which we belong influence our behavior

Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Centers on the workplace, main concern is personnel matters and human resource management

Clinical and Counseling Psychology

Diagnose and treat people with psychological probelms

Forensic Psychology

Applies psychological concepts to the legal system

Demand Characteristics (Experimental Research)

Any aspect of a study that communicates to the participants how the experimenter wants them to behave

Placebo Effect (Experimental Research)

A phenomenon in which the expectation of the participants, rather than the actual treatment, produces an outcome

Placebo (Experimental Research)

In a drug study, a harmless substance that has no physiological effect, given to participants in a control so that they are treated identically to the experimental group except for the active agent

Double-blind Experiment

An experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group

Research Samples

Population, sample, random sample

Population (Research samples)

Entire group about whom conclusion is to be drawn

Sample (Research Samples)

Portion of the population actually observed for the study

Random Sample

Each individual has equal chance of being selectioned, improves chances that the sample represents the population/minimizes bias

Research Settings

“Artificial” world and “Real“ world

“Artificial“ World

Laboratory setting, controlled setting

“Real” World

Natural setting, naturalistic observation

Analyzing and Interpreting Data

Statistics, descriptive statistics, measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion

Statistics

Mathematical methods used to report data

Descriptive Statistics

Describe/summarize

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean, median, mode

Measures of dispersion

Range, standard deviation

Inferential Statistics

Draw conclusions, bridge between sample and population, statistical significance (0.05)

Research Ethics

Research participants have rights, risks to participants must be balanced against scientific merit of the study, researchers have a responsibility to protect participants from physical and mental harm

APA Ethics Guidelines

Informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing, deception

Informed Consent

All participants must know what their participation will involve and what risks might develop

Confidentiality

Researchers are responsible for keeping all data they gather on individuals completely confidential and somtimes anonymous

Debriefing

After the study has been completed, the researchers should inform participants of its purpose and the methods they used

Deception

telling participants beforehand what the research study is about would affect participants’ behavior

Belmont Report

Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research

Belmont Report Aspects

Respect for persons, beneficience, justice

Respect for persons

People who participate in research must retain their autonomy when deciding to participate and throughout the duration of the study

Beneficence

An ethical obligation to weight the potential benefits of a study against its risks and to minimize risks as much as possible

Justice

The distribution of costs and benefits across a population

Development

The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life. Both growth and decline

Exploring Human Development

Physical processes, cognitive processes, socioemotional processes

Nature

Biological inheritance (genes)

Nuture

Environmental/social experiences

Self

Individuals take active roles in own development by seeking optimal experiences in life (life themes)

Resilience

A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times. Resilient children become capable adults

Prenatal Development

Germinal period, embryonic period, fetal period

Germinal period (Weeks 1 to 2)

Conception, zygote

Embryonic Period (Weeks 3 to 8)

Cell differentiation, start of organ formation

Fetal Period (Months 2 to 9)

Increase in organ function, can be affected by environmental insults

Teratogen

Agents that can disrupt development of the fetus