SPAU 3303 - Exam 1

SPAU 3303

language

the systematic and conventional use of sounds (or signs or written symbols) for the purpose of communication and self-expression (communication is different from language - language is a form of communication)

features that make language unique

-systematic (rule-based)
-conventional (agreed upon meaning)
-sounds, signals, symbols

semantics

meaning of words and sentences

components of language

phonology, lexical development, syntax/grammar, pragmatics/sociolinguistics, literacy

phonology

sound system, rules about sounds and putting sounds together

lexicon

vocabulary and processes of derivational morphology (word knowledge; word meaning, semantics); knowing the meaning of words and how to form new words

syntax

grammatical rules of putting words together; the system for combining words into sentences

pragmatics/sociolinguistics

social ways to use language

literacy

written forms of language

basic research

-research for the sake of knowledge - might someday have applications, but not the goal of the immediate study
-e.g. only humans have language (how? why? is it innate/biology or learned/environment?); information about human nature and biology

applied research

-has a goal of helping a population quickly based on the outcomes of the study
-study a question/problem in the intent of being able to help a group of people
-e.g. interventions for reading; identifying the main reasons for the vocabulary gap or identifying best interventions for combatting it; early diagnosis of a disorder

behaviorism

holds that change in behavior occurs in response to the consequences of prior behavior; focused on how environment shapes behavior

behaviorist view on language development

language is learned through imitation, rewards, and punishments

psammetichus' experiment

-an Egyptian king in 650 BC
-his question was who were the first people and wanted to prove that Egyptians were first
-the study of the two kids assumes that all humans have an INNATE language
-results from the study: the first word from the kids was "becos" and Pyrgian word for bread and he concluded that Pyrgians came first then Egyptians
-falls into the NATIVIST point of view since he believes that humans have an INNATE language

wild boy of aveyron (vicktor)

-found in the winter of 1800 (like tarzan) who had no contact with society
-revolutions and questions of innate abilities, what it means to be human
-able to teach the boy individual words but not grammar
-boy was able to speak words, show empathy, but not full syntax

interest of vicktor

-first person ever found that had no human contact before and who didn't know how to speak
-sparked curiosity

baby biographies

-(1800s-2000s) people who keep track of what their kids say and when they said it
-charles darwin was an example of a baby biographer

normative studies

-(WWI-1950s) studies to figure out what is the norm and what was average in language development
-dominate view was behaviorism (nurture; the environment shapes our behavior)
-focus on observable behaviors
-IQ tests were on the rise

skinner's theory of language development

-language is learned through imitation, rewards, and punishments
-try to show that correct imitation is rewarded with social interactions (first looked at animals and then thought it would be the same for children)
-book "Verbal Behavior" (1957) discussed his theories

"verbal behavior" book

-written by Skinner
-discussed his theories
-behaviorist view

chomsky's theory of language acquisition

-countered skinner's argument with an extreme nativist/nature argument
-believed that language is biologically programmed in humans and innate
-noted similarities between languages (all over word order, morphology, nouns, verbs)
-believed that behaviorist theories are wrong because language develops

chomsky's argument against behaviorists

-believed that behaviorist theories are wrong because language develops:
-rapidly (kids get the rules really fast), effortlessly, without direct instruction (not given rewards every single time)
-what is observed didn't match behaviorist arguments:
-not imitation since kids use novel (new) sentences (that they have never heard)
-no feedback: correct content not structure (parents don't give feedback on the grammar but they give correction on the content)

three things Chomsky noted about how children learn grammar to support his claim

-rapidly (kids get the rules really fast)
-effortlessly
-with out direct instruction (not given rewards every single time)

universal grammar (UG)

-feature of chomsky's theory
-rules underlying the structure of all languages

language acquisition device (LAD)

-feature of chomsky's theory
-innate human mechanism allowing for universal grammar (UG) acquisition

social approach of language development

-view: language is how we socialize and communicate
-study: social abilities and experiences associated with language
-e.g. how the drive to socialize relates to language (gestures)
-e.g. most likely to study how children's early attempts to communicate with their parents might influence language development

biological approach of language development

-view: language is a biological aspect of humans
-study: genetic and neurological structures for language development, compare species (no other species can speak and learn a language; what do humans have that other species don't have to learn a language?)
-e.g. chimps and signing
-e.g. most likely to study the genetic basis of autism

linguistic approach of language development

-view: grammar is complex; if we believe it is innate, what rules do children have independent of the language they learn? (do children have innate rules that didn't get supported by the language that they learn and have lost it?)
-study: finding cross-linguistic similarities in language structures to better understand what children "know" about language vs. "learn" in their language
-inherent (e.g. I am a woman) vs. temporary states (e.g. I am hungry) and "to be" in English (do kids use it as one form or different forms?)

domain general approach of language development

-view: language is the same as other cognitive development
-study: study general cognitive development and how it relates to, or explains, language development (what do kids learn outside of language and how does it relate to language development?)
-e.g. memory and syntax (kids who remember more words have better syntax), statistical learning

empiricist theory of language acquisition

empiricism is the view of development that asserts that the mind at birth is a blank slate and all knowledge and reason come from experience

nativist theory of language acquisition

nativism is the view that knowledge is innate, as opposed to being learned from experience

interactionist theory of language acquisition

-humans have special abilities that when exposed to language allows for language development (there is something unique to humans that allows for language development)
-3 views: emergentist, constructivism, social interactionism

emergentist

-view of language
-knowledge can arise from the interaction between biology and the environment
-you need a biological change like how the voice box drops first and then you have a biological drive to start communicating
-it's an ongoing interaction between the two that leads to language development
-nature AND nurture

constructivism

-Piaget (father of cognitive development)
-child actively explores to change their knowledge
-ONLY environment (no need for human interaction)

social interactionism

-Snow (studier)
-social interaction drives language acquisition (argues that autism is a social disorder, not language disorder since language derives from the social drive)
-learning through others (have to have human interaction)

generativist linguistic theory

-the theory that language acquisition and use are supported by an innate Universal Grammar. Language experience triggers innate knowledge and sets language-specific parameters. The language-learning mechanism is specific to language

modular theory of language development

-aka domain SPECIFIC view (chomskian and nativist views)
-mental capacities or abilities that are useful for only one task or domain
-e.g. if the mental capacity responsible for language acquisition were used only to acquire language and nothing else, it would be domain-specific capacity
-language is innate
-self-contained module; language is totally independent of others, there are modules that are in charge of different things
-not related to IQ
-it is what you have as part of being human
-evidence: adult brain damage

two theorists associated with modular theory

-Chomsky
-Fodor

domain general theory

-cognitive skills that lead to language are natural (it's the cognitive skills that lead to language being an action that follows)
-symbolism, self-awareness, social cognition, drive to communicate, statistical learning

statistical learning

-relating to the domain-general theory
-it suggests that language is NOT innate, and is an ability that we can learn
-counting the frequency with which one stimulus is followed by another
-it is a mechanism NOT a theory; it is what you think that they do with the statistical learning is the theory
-learning of the co-occurrence probabilities of experienced stimuli
-one mechanism for learning the patterns in the input that could contribute to learning language
-e.g. babies presented with sequences of sounds appear to learn the conditional probability of one sound following another in the sequence they heard

word boundaries

-identifying a word in the stream of language
-where one word ends and the next begins (e.g. it is hard to hear individual words in Korean)
-high percentage of predictability between sounds \= probably a word
-low percentage of predictability between sounds \= probably word boundary

connectionist theory

-a theoretical perspective that holds that thinking consists of activating connections in a network of interconnected nodes and of activation spreading in this network along paths determined by the strengths of the connections among those nodes
-a network of interconnected nodes between which activation spreads to give "cognition" or thoughts (associations and concepts)
-thought or concept \= particular pattern of activation
-learning \= strengthening connections between nodes (words or concepts)

differences in connectionism from other theories

-different from all other
-it's not rule-based
-syntax is learned by forming associations
-no abstract categories for grammatical rules to apply to

examples of connectionist model

-start to associate certain adjectives to people you previously had interactions with
-you met a American who was a jerk so then you start associating Americans to being a jerk

continuity vs. discontinuity

-is language development just increasing the same information and skills (continuity) or is there a pure developmental shift in thinking (discontinuity)?
-e.g. acquiring more words (continuity) vs. first words are not symbolic and abstract like later ones (discontinuity)
-arguments about this are important to our understanding of language development (any theory that argues that discontinuity happens then they also must describe where and when it occurs)

functionalism

-the need to communicate pushes acquisition (language is purely functional and the function is to communicate)
-fits with social-interactionism, domain-general, interactionists
-the theory that the structure of language has a basis in the communicative functions language serves

formalism

-independent of communication (more innate view; e.g. internal monologue - it is not communicating to anyone)
-fits with domain-specific and nativism
-the view that the structure of language is arbitrary (random) and cannot be explained in terms of the meanings language conveys or the communicative functions language serves

longitudinal studies

following one subject for a long time (e.g. following/gathering data from the same kid for a very long time)

cross-sectional studies

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

methods for studying language production in children

-high tech options (TED talk by Deb Roy)
-parental report (diaries)
-tests in labs (studies to collect speech samples; standardized: PPVT - Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test)
-speech samples: child language data storage system (CHILDES)

child language data storage system (CHILDES)

the large database of child speech samples

correlational research

you can only say there is a relationship but cannot say why there is a relationship (e.g. maternal reading and language)

cross-cultural and cross-linguistic

-previous english bias (a lot of research on only english speaking countries with english being the only common language)
-noun bias (kids have way more nouns in vocabulary than compared to verbs; really common in english and not in other languages, people used to assume it happened in all languages)

ways language is universal

-all people have language (all languages are equally as complex)
-universal pattern of development (everyone basically learns it the same way no matter where you are born)
-if there is no language, it will be created

pidgin language

-used between speakers of different languages
-a form of communication for commerce "primitive grammar" (nouns and verbs)
-a structurally simple language that arises when people who share no common language come into contact

creole language

-grammatically complex language created by the people using a pidgin over time (unique specific language made from a mix of different cultures)
-a language that develops when children acquire a pidgin language as their native language and which is grammatically more complex than a pidgin language

what we learn from creoles

-language does not need to be imported (humans, mainly children, can create them)
-children create the language (adults use one of the original languages) (the kids are the ones who add the structure, not the adults - the kids change it to creole language; if the adults are the only ones who use the pidgin language then that language would not change to creole)

nicaraguan sign language

-a sign language developed in the 1980s when Nicaragua opened their first school for deaf children
-the children individually already had formed their own sign languages; children created their own full language (that had a full grammar and syntax) that was not the same as the one that the teachers were trying to teach them
-over 20 years, the language evolved from being a pidgin language to a creole language
-the children were building the language when they were developing and needing language
-the children were the most fluent compared to the adults and the older kids at the school
-the little kids came up with the rules of the language
-the older people could learn the words but couldn't really grasp the syntax and grammar (as you grow older, you lose the capacity to do so)

features of the human anatomy that help speech but cause risk in survival

-teeth are upright and are flat in the front (increases the range of sounds we can make); it maximizes speech but not eating
-vocal tract/larynx (when a kid is born, the larynx is a lot higher so that they can breathe while eating; as kids gets older the larynx drops allowing for a range of sounds but a low larynx increases choking but other animals can make some sounds but they can't choke)
-humans evolved to be able to communicate and have languages to survive (language is very important!!!! overlooks the choking aspects)

neurolinguistics

the relationship between the brain and language

cerebral cortex

area of the brain for higher mental function (the outer layer of the brain that controls higher mental functions such as reasoning and planning)

corpus callosum

connects the two hemispheres; a band of nerve fibers that connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain

contralateral connections

each cerebral hemisphere connects to the opposite side of the body (e.g. the right hemisphere moves the left side of the body)

lesions

-damage to the brain
-studying brain lesions shows what (actions) is lacking when an area in the brain is missing
-injury to an area corresponds to ability loss

paul broca's study

-1861
-Tan was his patient who could only say single syllable words
-he had lost "articulate language"
-damage to the left hemisphere
-broca concluded that language production is from the left hemisphere

lesion studies rare in children

lesions in children are rare

aphasia

loss of language (a language disorder, not speech which is a way to use language); a word finding problem (can be seen in those who uses sign language)

broca's aphasia

-can only speak nouns and verbs with little grammatical structure (intact meanings, semantics) (NO syntax!)
-slow halting speech, know what they want to say but cannot come up/find the words, comprehension is good (can understand what others are saying to them), and they know that they are struggling

wernicke's aphasia

-"speech salad"
-aka fluent aphasia
-no meaning (intact grammar)
-correct syntax (grammatically correct), but it is not meaningful
-comprehension isn't well
-they think that they are making sense

double dissociation

-damage to broca's area: syntax is damaged, semantics is fine
-damage to wernicke's area: semantics is damaged, syntax is fine
-indicates the independence of function (language isn't just one thing)
-very simple and historic view

dichotic listening tasks

-identifies hemisphere differences
-if you play "ba" in the left ear and "ga" in the right ear, which sound would you hear? (left hemisphere processes language) you will report hearing "ga" (from the right ear - the right ear sends the info to the left hemisphere)

right ear advantage

when true dichotic listening conditions are met the right ear is more accurate in identifying most verbal stimuli than the left ear

language processes that occur in the RIGHT hemisphere

in order for the right hemisphere to process language, it has to be heard from the left ear

split brain studies

-the corpus callosum which connects the two hemispheres is split
-shows what hemisphere is processing information and how there is no language (it is "mute") in the right hemisphere
-only done for severe epilepsy patients
-video: patient looks at the dot and the word on the left side, the patient had to close his eyes to draw it but if it appears on the right side then he does know what it is and can verbally name it

ERP

-event-related potentials (ERPs)
-an imaging technique
-measures electrical activity (portions of the EEG related to cognition)
-pros: measures electrical activity; measuring how neurons are working; good temporal precision - good for measuring what is temporary in the brain and the sense of time (1 sample per milliseconds); across lifespan; cheap
-cons: bad at showing where in the brain something happens (bad at localizing activity); the output is hard to understand without training

MMN

-mismatch negativity
-shows the differentiation between two stimuli
-typical output from ERPs
-e.g. can kids/the brain of the kid differentiate between "ba" and "ga"

fMRI

-functional magnetic resonance imaging
-magnets to measure blood flow in the brain (not measuring activity)
-an imaging technique
-pros: measures blood flow; good at localizing acitivity
-cons: expensive; limited movement (problematic when studying children); slow (1 sample per 2 seconds, language takes 2-3 words per second)

PET

-positron emission tomography
-inhale or inject low-level radioactive substances; used like MRI to measure blood flow
-an imaging technique

NIRS

-near-infrared spectroscopy
-an imaging technique
-"baby MRI"
-uses light to transmit through the skull and blood to determine blood flow (only applicable to kids and infants since adults' skulls are thicker)

imaging techniques relating to developmental cognitive neuroscience

an approach to the study of cognitive development that seeks to understand the neurological bases of behavioral changes and that relies heavily on the use of brain imaging techniques

evidence for left hemisphere processing in language

-specialized for language (and some other things)
-activated primarily by syntax processing

right hemisphere in language processing

-intonation, emotional tone of language, pragmatics
-higher order semantics (understanding gist, analogies, metaphors)
-for some left-handed individuals it is flipped
-women (emotion area of the brain and some others are engaged in some tasks for women)

equipotentiality hypothesis

-hypothesis that, at birth, both hemispheres of the brain have equal potential for acquiring language

invariance hypothesis

the theory that holds that the left hemisphere of the brain has the adult specialization for language from birth; the left hemisphere is lateralized (one hemisphere is dominantly able to process a certain type of information) from birth

study addressing equipotentiality and invariance hypothesis

-what's happening at birth
-speech ("ba") vs. non-speech sounds (beeps) processing in newborns (what happens to language compared to tones/where are the sounds being processed
-smaller left hemisphere advantage at birth -\> supports invariance theory
-with age, language is more left lateralized (gradual shift over time) but non-language sounds don't lateralize
-explains the invariance theory

left hemisphere developing to process language from birth through adulthood

with age, language is more left lateralized (gradual shift over time) but non-language sounds don't lateralize (explains invariance theory)

childhood aphasia vs. adult aphasia

-in adults, damage to the left hemisphere language areas equals long term language problems
-pre-linguistic: damage to the left or right causes small language problems; recovers to almost typical levels by age 5-7; kids use way more areas of the brain, even the right, while learning (especially for language)
-post-linguistic: left damage \= mild delays and disorders (related to age: the younger you are, the better you'll heal

linneberg's findings

-1967
-said kids heal from aphasia; said that kids have no long term effects to language
-more recent data not that clear
-problems: (1) standardized tests, (2) grouped pre- and post- language injuries (grouped together kids with brain damage, didn't test those who didn't have damage) (3) claim that there is NO effect but that isn't accurate
-current understanding that child aphasia has an effect but not as severe as adults

neuroplasticity

the ability of parts of the brain to take over functions they wouldn't normally serve (kids have higher plasticity, other areas of the brain can take over)

synaptogensis

-formation of the connections between neurons (increase in the connections between the neurons)
-starts 5th week after conception
-largely complete by around age 2
-from 3 months after birth to 2 years of age, 1.8 million new synapses per second

synaptic pruning

-development
-used synapses become stronger and faster
-synapses that are not used will die away
-from toddlerhood to teens you lose about 20 billion synapses a day (those that aren't used)
-benefit: a fast, efficient brain based on the environment
-benefit: parts of the brain can take over new abilities when you are young (neuroplasticity)
-downside: loses flexibility with age

critical period

-biologically determined period during which a behavior must appear
-the hypothesis that there is a biologically determined period during which language acquisition must occur, if it is to occur normally

support for critical period hypothesis

-children unexposed to language will get words but not the grammar when taught later
-children who are deaf but born to hearing parents, those who start earlier would be more proficient in sign language (learning younger \= more proficient)
-e.g. now 12 years old, started signing at 2 (would be more proficient) vs. now 32 years old, started signing at 12

second language acquisition relating to critical period

-different from no language access
-studied second language learners, they were asked: age of arrival (the one that impacted learning language), and years in the country
-age of arrival matters more
-continuous, not distinct decline (the older you get, the harder it gets)
-some achieve native-like language late (most people can't!!! there are exceptions; critical period isn't all or nothing)
-not all components of language are equal (younger learners \= better at phonology and grammar; older learners \= faster vocabulary development)
-more of a sensitive period instead

less-is-more hypothesis

the hypothesis (proposed by Newport) that children's smaller short-term memory span relative to adults' facilitates language acquisition by giving children smaller chunks of language to analyze

sensitive period

genetics and biological timing impact grammar and phonology

non-biological factors of language

-education level, the one with more education tends to learn better (isn't supported by biology)
-environment: learning in classroom vs. immersion (faster than classroom)
-social psychological factors: personality and role in the family (e.g. the kids being the interpreter)

genetics and language

-adoption studies
-genes (more similar to biological parent than the adoptive parent): rate of disorders and grammar
-environment (more similar to the adoptive parent than the biological parent): lexical development/vocabulary

communication methods in other animals

-complexity not related to intelligence
-primates: african vervet monkey will howl for snakes, eagles, and leopards to communicate that the animals is coming (but they cannot talk about new things)
-bees: does food source dance which is very complex (the speed and angle of the dance); cannot talk about pollen from last year versus this year

efforts to teach animals language

-concept learning vs. language
-multiple attempts: chimps speaking, apes signing, chimps with artificial language, bonobo signing
-never above about 2-year-old level in PRODUCTION (they do not get syntax)
-90% or more of the "utterances" were imitations (direct imitation from what they have heard)