Module 0: Scientific Attitude, Research Methods, & Statistics in Psychology

Vocabulary flashcards generated from Module 0 reading notes on scientific thinking, psychological research methods, experimental design, research ethics, and statistical reasoning.

Scientific Attitude

An approach to inquiry comprised of three core elements: curiosity, skepticism, and humility.

Critical Thinking

The process of analyzing information and making reasonable judgments by replacing intuition with facts and evidence.

Confirmation Bias

A mental habit where people look for, remember, and accept facts that match what they already believe while dismissing contradictory evidence.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Illusory Correlation

A cognitive bias where people mistakenly perceive a relationship, link, or cause-and-effect between two totally unrelated things.

Overconfidence

Having too much trust in one's own skills, power, or judgment.

Theory

A proven explanation for why or how something works that provides structured frameworks to organize complex human behavior.

Peer Reviewers

Experts who evaluate another person's work to make sure it is accurate before publication.

Hypothesis

An educated guess that can be tested.

Falsifiable

The capacity of a hypothesis or theory to be proven wrong with evidence.

Replication

Repeating a research study to confirm or evaluate its findings.

Null Hypothesis

A proposition asserting that there is no relationship between the variables being studied.

Operational Definition

A specifically worded statement detailing the exact procedures and measurements used in a research study.

Case Study

A non-experimental method that investigates a unique situation in depth to gather detailed qualitative information.

Naturalistic Observation

A non-experimental method where researchers observe and record subjects in their natural environment without controlling the situation.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical method that analyzes data combined from multiple individual studies to draw overall conclusions.

Wording Effects

The phenomenon where subtle changes in the phrasing, vocabulary, or structure of a question significantly alter how people respond.

Convenience Sampling

A sampling method in which researchers select participants simply because they are easy to reach.

Generalizable

The extent to which results obtained from a research study sample can accurately be applied to the broader population.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure representing the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables on a scale from $-1$ to $+1$.

Scatterplot

A graph of plotted points used to visually show relationships between two variables.

Regression Towards the Mean

The statistical tendency for extreme scores to move back closer toward the average (mean) upon subsequent testing.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated or altered directly by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

The outcome variable being measured in an experiment, which changes depending on the independent variable.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the special treatment or condition being tested.

Control Group

The baseline group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment and serves as a comparison.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to reduce pre-existing differences.

Single-Blind Study

An experimental procedure where either the participant or the tester does not know who is receiving the actual treatment.

Double-Blind Study

An experimental procedure where neither the participants nor the researchers know who received the actual treatment or placebo.

Placebo Effect

A phenomenon where an inactive or fake treatment produces real perceived results because the recipient expects it to work.

Confounding Variable

An uncontrolled factor or outlier in an experiment that can inadvertently affect the final results.

Validity

The degree to which a test or research tool accurately measures what it claims to measure.

Quantitative Research

Research centered around numerical measurements, statistical data, and mathematical analysis.

Qualitative Research

Research focused on words, subjective experiences, and open-ended descriptions.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Designated committees that review, monitor, and enforce ethical standards for research involving human subjects.

Informed Consent

Permission given by adult participants who fully understand the nature and risks of a study.

Informed Assent

Agreement to participate in a study provided by minors who are not legally able to give adult consent.

Debriefing

Post-experimental explanation given to participants covering the study's hypothesis, purpose, and findings.

Confederates

Individuals secretly working on behalf of researchers who pretend to be regular participants or bystanders during a study.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical values used to summarize, organize, and describe the primary features of a dataset.

Inferential Statistics

Statistical calculations that use data from a small sample group to make educated general conclusions about a whole population.

Statistically Significant

A statistical determination that an observed result is unlikely to have occurred purely by random chance.

Effect Size

A measurement indicating the strength or magnitude of a relationship between variables or the difference between experimental groups.