Cognitive Biases, Metacognition, Goals & Learning Theories – Comprehensive Review

A comprehensive set of question-and-answer flashcards reviewing cognitive biases, metacognition, goal setting, communication, reasoning, and major learning theories to prepare for the upcoming exam.

What is a cognitive bias?

An unfair judgment or belief in favor of or against a person or thing, rooted in social constructs, experiences, and beliefs.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to seek information that supports one’s own point of view while ignoring contradictory information.

What is anchoring bias?

Placing disproportionate weight on the first piece of information received, which then influences perceptions of new information.

What is availability bias?

Interpreting information as related to a diagnosis simply because it is at the forefront of one’s mind.

What is recency bias?

The belief that future events will closely resemble the most recent experiences.

What is attribution error?

The tendency to be judgmental and blame the patient for their illness or condition.

What is ascertainment bias?

Thinking shaped by prior assumptions and stereotypes such as ageism, racism, or stigmatism.

What is gender bias in clinical reasoning?

A tendency to believe that gender is a primary determinant of a patient’s condition.

What is diagnostic momentum?

A situation in which repeated diagnostics, tests, or interventions gain popularity and proceed unchecked.

What is overconfidence bias?

Acting on incomplete information or hunches and placing excessive faith in one’s own opinion.

What is the unpacking principle?

Failure to collect all relevant clues when establishing a differential diagnosis.

What are intellectual standards?

Criteria applied to information to determine whether it is factual or fictional.

In intellectual standards, what does clarity mean?

Whether the information can be understood.

In intellectual standards, what does accuracy mean?

That the information is true and free from errors.

In intellectual standards, what does precision mean?

Being exact and specific.

In intellectual standards, what does relevance mean?

How well the information relates to the current topic or issue.

In intellectual standards, what does depth mean?

Considering the complexity versus simplicity of the issue.

In intellectual standards, what does breadth mean?

Taking multiple viewpoints into account.

In intellectual standards, what does logic mean?

Information that makes sense and has no contradictions.

In intellectual standards, what does significance mean?

The importance of the information.

In intellectual standards, what does fairness mean?

Information that is justifiable and not self-serving.

In intellectual standards, what does sufficiency mean?

Having enough information with nothing vital missing.

What is ambiguity?

Inexactness, uncertainty, or the presence of more than one possible interpretation.

What is metacognition?

Awareness of the accuracy of one’s own thought processes—thinking about your thinking.

What is declarative knowledge?

Facts or events that are known to the individual.

What is procedural knowledge?

Also known as know-how—knowing how to perform a task or skill.

What is conditional knowledge?

Knowing when and why to apply various cognitive actions (situational awareness).

In regulation of cognition, what is planning?

Selecting appropriate strategies and allocating resources that affect performance.

In regulation of cognition, what is monitoring?

Reflection-IN-action: on-line awareness of comprehension and task performance.

In regulation of cognition, what is evaluating?

Reflection-ON-action: appraising learning products and regulatory processes.

What is reflection-on-action?

Analyzing thoughts or actions after the event has occurred.

What is reflection-in-action?

Actively evaluating your own thoughts and practices as they occur.

What is a goal in cognitive psychology?

A mental representation of a desired end-state that a person is committed to approaching or avoiding.

What characterizes an abstract goal?

It is conceptual and idea-based.

What characterizes a concrete goal?

It is objective and defined by specific criteria.

What does SMART stand for in goal setting?

Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, Timely.

What are superordinate goals?

The highest-level goals that reflect idealized views of oneself, relationships, or society.

What are intermediate goals?

General courses of action that provide the behavioral context for achieving a superordinate goal.

What is equifinality?

The property of achieving the same effect or result from different events.

What is multifinality?

A single cause leading to different outcomes.

What does situated cognition theory propose?

Thinking depends on the interaction between the person and the environment (e.g., clinician, patient, and clinic context).

What is verbal communication?

What you say and how you say it using words.

What is non-verbal communication?

How you convey messages without words (e.g., body language, tone).

What is situational awareness in communication?

Perception of environmental elements—including space and time—during an interaction.

In learning contexts, what does it mean to innovate?

To make changes by using new ideas.

What is the Master Adaptive Learner (MAL) concept?

A metacognitive approach that promotes self-regulation and the development of adaptive expertise.

What is routine expertise?

Highly efficient and accurate performance based on well-learned knowledge and skills.

What is adaptive expertise?

Balancing routine efficiency with effortful learning and innovative problem solving.

What is Preparation for Future Learning (PFL)?

The capacity to learn new information, use resources effectively, and invent procedures for problem solving.

In the MAL framework, what happens in the planning phase?

Identifying a gap in knowledge, skill, or perspective.

In the MAL framework, what happens in the learning phase?

Engaging in intentional, active, meaningful learning.

In the MAL framework, what happens in the assessing phase?

Starting with self-assessment and progressing to guided, informed self-assessment.

In the MAL framework, what happens in the adjusting phase?

Integrating what has been learned into daily routines.

What is inductive reasoning?

Drawing broad generalizations from specific examples based on past experience—‘bottom-up’ thinking.

What is deductive reasoning?

Using known true premises to test a hypothesis and reach a specific conclusion—‘top-down’ logic.

What are the five traditional learning theories?

Behaviorism, Humanism, Cognitivism, Social Cognitivism, Constructivism.

According to Adult Learning Theory, what are the six assumptions about adult learners?

Self-Concept, Experience, Readiness to Learn, Problem-Centered Orientation, Internal Motivation, Need to Know.