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Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Goals of Psychology
To describe, explain, predict, and change behavior is the goals of what?
The Psychological Frame of Mind
To be a critical thinker, skepticism, objective, and curious person are what make up a psychologist _.
Critical thinking
the process of reflecting deeply and actively, asking questions and evaluating evidence. (psychological frame of mind)
Skepticism
characterized by an attitude of questioning, disbelief, or doubt. (psychological frame of mind)
Objectivity
involves seeing things as they are, not as we would like them to be. (psychological frame of mind)
Curiosity
can be characterized as the impulse or desire to investigate, observe, or gather information, particularly when the material is novel or interesting. (psychological frame of mind)
Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt's approach to discovering the basic elements, or structures, of mental processes; so called because of its focus on identifying the structures of the human mind. (explored through INTROSPECTION)
Introspection
a process of looking inside our own mind by focusing on our own thoughts.
Functionalism
William James's approach to mental processes, emphasizing the functions and purpose of the mind and behavior in the individual's adaptation to the environment.
Natural selection
Charles Darwin's principle of an evolutionary process in which organisms that are better adapted to their environment will survive and produce more offspring.
Scientific method
(step 1)Observing some phenomenon--->
(step 2)Formulating Hypotheses and Predictions --->
(step 3)Testing Through Empirical Research --->
(step 4)Drawing Conclusions --->
(step 5)Evaluating the Theory --->
Theory (observing some phenomena)
A broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations and to make predictions about future observations. (Scientific method)
Hypotheses (Formulating Hypotheses and Predictions)
Educated guess that derives logically from a theory; a prediction that can be tested. (Scientific method)
Prediction (Formulating Hypotheses and Predictions)
statement about the specific expectation for the outcome of a study.
Empirical method (Testing through Empirical Research)
Gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning. (Scientific method)
Operational definition (Testing through Empirical Research)
A definition that provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study. (Scientific method)
Replication (Evaluating the Theory)
Repeating a study in a new sample to see if results are the same as in previous work. (Scientific method)
Meta-analysis (Evaluating the Theory)
A statistical procedure that summarizes a large body of evidence from the research literature on a body on a particular topic, allowing the researcher to assess the strength of the relationship between the variables. (scientific method)
The difference between Theory and Hypotheses
A hypothesis a testable prediction or explanation for a specific phenomenon while for hypotheses it's a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that explain the natural world.
Descriptive research
Research that determines the basic dimensions of a phenomenon—defining what it is, how often it occurs, and so on.
Appropriate for giving detailed and accurate account of a population, situation, or phenomenon. (Type of research)
Observation
Research in which the experimenter passively observes the behavior of the participants without any attempt at intervention or manipulation of the behaviors being observed. (descriptive research)
Interviews
directed conversation in which a researcher, therapist, clinician, employer, or the like for purposes of research, diagnosis, treatment, or employment. (descriptive research)
Surveys
study in which a group of participants is selected from a population and data about or opinions from those participants are collected, measured, and analyzed. (descriptive research)
Case studies
An in-depth look at a single individual, family, event, or other entity. (descriptive research)
Correlational research
Research that examines the relationship between variables in order to find out whether and how two variables change together.
Appropriate for focusing on RELATIONSHIPS between two variables.
(Type of research)
Correlation coefficient
The degree of relation between two variables is expressed as a numerical value known as _
Positive growth is shown as +1.00
Negative growth is shown as -1.00
Zero growth is shown as 0 (correlation research)
Third variable problem
The circumstance in which a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two others; term is also known as confounds.
CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION (Correlation research)
Cross-sectional design
A type of correlation study in which variables are measured at a single point in time. (correlation research)
longitudinal design
A special kind of systematic observation that involves obtains measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time. (correlational research)
Experiment
A carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulated one or more variables believed to influence some other variables.
Appropriate for when establishing a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables (type of research)
Quasi-experimental design
An experimental design that does not randomly assign participants to conditions, because such assignment is either impossible or unethical. (experiment)
Double-blind experiment
An experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are the in the experimental group and which are in the control group until the results are calculated. (experiment)
Independent variable
A manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are. (variable of experiment)
Dependent variable
The outcome; the variable that may change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable. (variable of experiment)
Experimental group
The participants in an experiment who receive the drug or other treatment under study; those who are exposed to the change that the independent variable represents. (type of experimental group)
Control group
The participants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimental group except for a manipulated favor, the independent variable. (type of experimental group)
Learning
A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.
Associative learning
Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events. Ex. classical conditioning (type of learning)
Observational learning
Learning that involves observing and imitating another's behavior. Ex. operant conditioning (type of learning)
Classical conditioning
Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.
Neutral stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that does not produce a response (classical conditions)
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning. (classical conditioning)
Unconditioned response (UR)
An unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. (classical conditioning)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus. (classical conditioning)
Conditioned response (CR)
The learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing. (classical conditioning)
Operant conditioning
A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's recurrence.
Reinforcement
The process by which a stimulus or event (a reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again. (operant conditioning)
Postive reinforcement
The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior. (operant conditioning)
Negative reinforcement
The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior.(operant conditioning)
Primary reinforcer
A reinforcer that is innately satisfying; a primary reinforcer does not require any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable. (operant conditioning)
Secondary reinforcer
A reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer. (operant conditioning)
Schedules of reinforcement
Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.
Fixed Ratio (FR) schedule
A reinforcement schedule that delivers reinforcer after a fixed number of responses. (schedule of reinforcement
Variable Ratio (VR) schedule
A reinforcement schedule that delivers a reinforcer after a variable and unpredictable number of responses (schedule of reinforcement)
Fixed interval (FI) schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which the first response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed is reinforced. (schedule of reinforcement)
Variable Interval (VI) schedule
reinforcement schedule in which reinforcers become available after variable and (1) unpredictable time intervals. Once a reinforcer becomes available, (2) a single response is required to collect it. (schedule of reinforcement)
Positive punishment
The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior. (operant conditioning)
Negative punishment
The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior. (operant conditioning)
Development
the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline
Physical processes
Involves changes in a person's biological nature. (Ex. Changes in the brain, height, weight and motor skills) (development)
Cognitive processes
Changes in a person's thinking, intelligence, and language. (Ex. learning the route to class each day) (development)
Socioemotional processes
Changes in social relationships, in emotions, and in personality. (Ex. An infant's smile in response to a parents touch) (development)
Prenatal development
A time of astonishing change, beginning with conception. (child development)
Germinal period
weeks 1 and 2; begins with conception; after week 1 and many cell divisions, the zygote is made up of 100 to 150 cells; by the end of two weeks, the mass of cells have attached to the uterine wall (prenatal development)
Embryonic period
Weeks 3 through 8; cells differentiation increases and start of organ formation (prenatal development)
Fetal period
Months 2 through 9; increase in organ functioning and can be affected by environmental insults. (prenatal development)
Cognitive development
How thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature.
Piaget's Theory of cognitive development
Children actively construct their cognitive world using schemas (cognitive development)
Schemas
Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. (cognitive development)
Assimilation
An individual's incorporation of new information into existing knowledge. (schemas)
Accommodation
An individual's adjustment of schemas to include new information. (schemas)
Sensorimotor Stage
Preoperational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage
Formal Operational Stage
Smart
People
Can't
Forget
(cognitive development)
Sensorimotor Stage
(Birth to 2 years) Children's thinking is realized through their perceptions of the world and their physical interactions with it.
▪ Coordinate sensations with movements.
▪ Progress from reflexive action to symbolic thought
Problem to overcome: Object permanence (cognitive development)
Preoperational Stage
(2 to 7 years) Children show a wide variety of symbolic-representation capabilities.
▪Symbolic thinking: words and images
▪ Intuitive reasoning
▪ Egocentrism
Problem to overcome: Conservation
(cognitive development)
Concrete Operational Stage
(7 to 11 years) Children are able to think logically in most situations, but cannot think in systematic scientific ways.
▪ Operational thinking (e.g., conservation). reversibility.
▪ Classification skills.
▪ Reason logically in concrete contexts.
Problem to overcome: Learn; abstract, scientific thinking
(cognitive development)
Formal Operational Stage
(11 and older) Children attain the reasoning power of mature adults.
▪Lasts through adulthood.
▪ Abstract and idealistic thought.
▪Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Mastered: Abstract, scientific thinking and formal education necessary for this stage
(cognitive development)
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
Theory that adults (expert thinkers) spur cognitive development by interacting with a child in a way that is just above the level of sophistication the child (apprentice thinkers) has masted. (cognitive development)
Infant attachment
The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver (attachment)
Secure attachment
An infant that uses their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment. (infant attachment)
Secure infant
Plays freely when mother is near. Upset when caregiver leaves. Happy when caregiver returns. (secure attachment)
Insecure attachment
Infants that do not use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore (infant attachment)
Avoidant infant
Do not cry when caregiver leaves.Seem to avoid caregiver when they return returns. (insecure attachment)
Anxious/ambivalent infant
Hovers around caregiver. Upset when caregiver leaves. Angry when caregiver returns.
(insecure attachment)
Authoritarian parenting
a restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent's directions
Children fare poorly
(low warmth; high control) (Baumrind's Parenting Styles)
Authoritative parenting
A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior.
Children fare best
(High warmth; high control) (Baumrind's Parenting Styles)
Neglectful parenting
a parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life
Clear negative effects on children
(low warmth; low control) (Baumrind's Parenting Styles)
Permissive parenting
A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.
Girls fare OK, boys often become aimless
(High warmth; low control) (Baumrind's Parenting Styles)
Kohlberg's theory
Theory on that moral development is based on maturation of thought, capacity for role taking, and opportunities to discuss moral issues with a person who reasons at a stage just above one's own. (moral development)
Preconventional
The individual's moral reasoning is based on the consequences of behavior and punishments and rewards from the external world. (Kohlberg's theory)
Conventional
The person abides by standards learned from parents or society's laws. (Kohlberg's theory)
Postconventional
Individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then develops an increasingly personal moral code. (Kohlberg's theory)
Personality
A pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world.
Psychodynamic perspective
Theoretical views emphasizing that personality is primarily unconscious (beyond awareness).
Ego
The Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality. (psychodynamic theory)
Id
The Freudian structure of personality consisting of unconscious drives; the individual's reservoir of sexual energy. (psychodynamic theory)
Superego
The Freudian structure of personality that serves as the harsh internal judge of our behavior; what we often call conscience. (psychodynamic theory)
Humanistic perspective
Theoretical views of personality that stress a person's capacity for personal growth and positive human qualities
Abraham Maslow
Believed that we can learn the most about human personality buy focusing on the very nest examples of human beings--self-actualizers. (humanistic)
Self-actualization
To reach one's full, human potential (tendency toward wholeness).
o They perceive reality accurately and fully.
o They demonstrate a great acceptance of themselves and others.
o They have a need for privacy.
o They tend to have only a few friends.
o They are creative.
(Abraham Maslow)