Western Civilization Through Reformation

Culture

How children are raised, with the idea that people naturally live in groups. So it refers to the shared beliefs, social practices, laws, etc.

Civilization

A type of subset or culture, derived from the Latin word for civics, which is the word for someone living in a city. Including tradition, language, and food of the group.

Hebrews - Monotheism

Belief and existence in one god

Hebrews - Revelation

The idea that people can’t reach the truth unless it’s revealed to them. 

Hebrews

The first group to believe in one god. With the belief that the world has a beginning with god (the story of Adam and Eve). 

Greeks - Reason

The idea humans can reach truth through their minds (socrates)

Greeks - Philosophy

“love of wisdom”

Greeks - Plato

A student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, with the idea of how much we see of reality. Like we are in a cave with a small hole of light far away, that we can only see. 

Greeks - Aristotle

The teacher of Alexander the Great, who believed there was useful information in observing and fathering. Seen as a pratical approach to reason

Greeks - Humanism 

An idea that emphasizes the value of human beings. Being compared to the Hebrews who sought the importance of god. 

Greeks - Alexander

After his father conquered the Greeks, he led the Greeks to defeat Asia and North Africa. The idea that there should be one world government. He died young, and after that, the empire broke.  

Romans - Republic

Roman became this after overthrowing the monarchy.

Romans - Law

Legal system founded upon the twelve tabels.

Romans - Empire

A large political unit that rules over a vast territory or many different peoples and states. With one central power, for Rome it was an emperor. 

Romans - Latin

It was the official language of the Roman Empire. 

Christianity

Was legalized by Constantine after spreading, with the conversions of the Hebrews to Christianity. 

Christinaity - Jesus Christ

The idea that God would send him to save the human race and not just the nation of Israel. Christ is Greek for Messiah.

Christianity - Church

Followers (of the Roman Empire) were called the church.

Christianity - Constantine

Legislated Christianity and founded the new capital of Constantinople. Before winning a civil war, he heard ‘in this sign of god he shall conquer” and ended the persecution and became a Christian. 

Christianity - Barbarians

Non-Roman people who were viewed as uncivilized, eventually invading and contributing to the fall of the Roman Empire. 

Middle Ages - Feudalism

A social and political system where land was exchanged for military services and loyalty between lords and vassals. 

Middle Ages - Lords

Powerful landowners in the feudal system who granted land to peasants.

Middle Ages - Peasants

Made up 98% of the population. They worked as farmers and were self-sufficient and got support from lords. 

Middle Ages - Kingship

The system or institution in which a king overrules a state. Claiming it’s their divine right to rule. 

Middle Ages - Charlemagne

Was a successful warlord in the 1800s, conquering the Tcurrent France, Germany, and Northern Spain. When the pope decided to restore the Roman Empire, he was invited to be crowned the Roman emperor. 

Middle Ages - Papacy

The office and authority of the pope as the spiritual and political leader of the Roman Catholic Church. Was the central institution organizing the city based on bishops and priests, allowing for the generational control of the barbarians? 

Middle Ages - Holy Roman Empire

Territories in Central Europe ruled by an emperor. 

Middle Ages - Burghers

Middle-class people are often merchants or craftsmen. Described as they were because they lived in a wall-like structure, pulling dirt for defense, specifically in a city with more concentrated wealth. 

Middle Ages - Bourgeoisie

Social class of the townspeople, which made society all about trade and business.

Middle Ages - Universities

Created during the push for education, and when they set up more schools. Despite only the clergy needing education, a shift has allowed the push for more accessible education. 

Renaissance - Greco-Roman ideal

A model of culture combining Greek and Roman values that emphasizes reason, balance, civic duty, and physical/intellectual excellence.

Renaissance - Humanism

A movement that emphasizes human potential, seen in the art and literature of Greek and Roman society.

Renaissance - Secularism

The principle of focusing on worldly living rather than religious or spiritual matters

Renaissance - Texts

Used to emphasize the culture of the Greeks and Romans

Renaissance - Gutenberg Printing Press 1455

Created as a faster/cheaper way to print things. The church mostly controlled it and made reading more accessible. 

Reformation - Martin Luther

A German monk who challenged the Church's practices with his 95 Theses. The tests were a logical argument explaining the only way to be saved was by Faith Alone. 

Reformation - Protestants

Christians who broke from the Catholic Church, alongside Martin Luther.

Reformation - Faith Alone

The idea (protestants) that salvation comes through faith in God, not through good works or Church rituals. 

Reformation - Vernacular

Writers use everyday language spoken by ordinary people to make texts more accessible.

Reformation - Wars of Religion

Fight between Catholics and Protestants over the religious and political control—during which they attempted to wipe each other out. Each thought the other had the wrong idea to be saved, and they were the devil. 

European Expansion - Portugal

Became a leading maritime power, establishing trade routes and colonies worldwide.

European Expansion - Spain

The global empire in the 15th/16th century was built through exploration, conquest, and the spread of Catholicism. 

European Expansion - Columbus

An Italian explorer sailing from Spain who completed four voyages across the Atlantic, opening the Americas to European exploration. 

European Expansion - England

Became a major political, religious, and colonial power, especially after the Reformation and the establishment of the Church of England.

European Expansion - France

Centralized royal power played a key role in the Wars of Religion and became a dominant cultural and political force in Europe.

European Expansion - Holland

A wealthy and influential region of the Netherlands known for trade, banking, and maritime power during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Absolutism in France - Standing Army

A permanent, professional military maintained by a state even during peacetime.

Absolutism in France - Gunpowder

An explosive mixture used in firearms and artillery that transformed warfare in Europe and Asia. Initially developed by the Chinese scholars as a way to stay young.

Absolutism in France - Bureaucracy

The desk work done for the armies was done by townspeople with education and organizational skills.

Absolutism in France - Roman Law

The legal system that established principles of justice, property, and citizenship. Spain wsa the model and was what lawyers were studying at the time.

Absolutism in France - Alliance with Bourgeoisie 

An alliance with Spain that created business and law and order for the bureaucrats. With the focus of getting the wealth out of the people through tax collecting. 

Absolutism in France - Henry IV. (r. 1589 - 1610)

Member of the Bourn dynasty and the leading commander of the Huguenots. His catholic cousin died, and he as protest (French lawyers on the question of religion), but for Henry King, religion was worth more than this, emphasizing secularism. 

Absolutism in France - Edict of Nantes 1598

A decree by Henry granted religious tolerance to Huguenots while maintaining Catholicism as the state religion. 

Absolutism in France - Huguenots

French Protestants who faced persecution in Catholic France.

Absolutism in France - Cardinal Richelieu

In charge of day-to-day government administration, he served as the chief minister to King Louis XIII. He strengthened royal authority, weakened the power of nobles, and centralized France’s government. 

Absolutism in France - Centralization

The process of concentrating political power and decision-making authority in a single, central government. 

Absolutism in France - Louis XIV (r. 1643 - 1715)

A significant example of absolutism) He reigned from childhood, but only controlled once he grew up. Bringing back coercing (dungeons) after trying incentives. He waged many wars which the nobility liked since ti gave them glory and reward. 

Absolutism in France - Versailles

Louis XIV built structures that displayed lavish living, nicknamed the “gilded cage” for the French Nobility. Symbolizing the time France became the strongest country with its culture becoming the model across Europe. 

Absolutism in France - Mercantilism

An economic system in which a nation increases its wealth and power by controlling trade, accumulating precious metals, and maintaining colonies.

Absolutism in France - Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

The decree by King Lois XIV that canceled religious toleration for Huguenots, leading to persecution and mass emigration. 

Constitutionalism in England - Parliament

A legislative body in England that represents the people, makes laws, and limits the power of the monarch. Controlling taxes and spending is called the power of the purse.

Constitutionalism in England - Rights

Protections guaranteed by law, such as those in the Magna Carta and Bill of Rights, that limit the monarch’s power and uphold Parliament and individual freedoms.

Constitutionalism in England - Limited Monarchy

A system of government in which a monarch’s powers are restricted by law or a constitution, often shared with a legislative body.

Constitutionalism in England - Henry VIII (Tudor) (r.1509 - 1547)

The king who established the Church of England, breaking from the Catholic Church to assert royal authority over religion and marriage. During his reign, he bullied parliament and got annulled from a Spanish wife. 

Constitutionalism in England - Church of England

The Protestant church established by Henry VIII, with the monarch as its supreme head, independent of the Pope.

Constitutionalism in England - Puritans

English Protestants who sought to reform and purify the Church of England from remaining Catholic practices.

Constitutionalism in England - Elizabeth I (r. 1558 - 1547)

Stabilized the religious situation and strengthened Protestantism, defeated the Spanish Armada, and promoted a flourishing of English culture during her reign. The defeat of that army of Mary’s Spanish husband symbolizing the idea of God being on their side.

Constitutionalism in England - James I (Stuart) (r.1603 - 1624)

King of England and Scotland who advocated the divine right of kings and the belief in God (only being judged by the book). 

Constitutionalism in England - Divine Right

The belief that a monarch’s authority to rule comes directly from God and is not subject to earthly authority.

Constitutionalism in England - Charles I (r.1624 - 1649)

Got rights of parliament with the king having to summon, while being hit with the religious issue and using force to put down rebellion in Ireland, since they had no standing army, also with the use of naval forces. But he was forced to tax parliament, and they were very hostile since they were mainly Puritans and he had an army with no trust. 

Constitutionalism in England - Civil War (1642 - 1648)

The conflict in England between King Charles I’s Royalists and Parliament’s Roundheads over political power and the monarchy’s authority. A leader emerging is Oliver Cromwell. During this war, they took the King prisoner and tried him for treason. It ended with the declaration that England was a commonwealth, with Cromwell as lord protector and an army to govern. 

Constitutionalism in England - Oliver Cromwell

The Puritan leader of Parliament’s army, who defeated Charles I, ruled England as Lord Protector, and established a republican government.

Constitutionalism in England - Commonwealth

The period from 1649 to 1660 when England was a republic ruled without a king, led first by Parliament and later by Oliver Cromwell.

Constitutionalism in England - Restoration 1600

The return of the monarchy in England occurred when King Charles II took the throne after the collapse of Cromwell’s Commonwealth. During which they sent a delegation to ask Cromwell’s son to lead despite them killing Oliver Cromwell. 

Constitutionalism in England - Glorious Revolution 1688

The victory of Parliament and Protestants, as Charles died and they overthrew King James II, his brother. No question of absolute government again. During this period, catholics faced severe discrimination, and since then, there has never been a catholic king or queen

Byzantine Empire - Constantinople

The capital of the Byzantine Empire, founded by Constantine, which became a wealthy center of trade and Christianity until its fall in 1453.

Byzantine Empire - Orthodox Christianity

The branch of Christianity that developed in the Byzantine Empire, emphasizing tradition, rituals, and the authority of the patriarch instead of the pope.

Byzantine Empire - Autocracy

A system of government in which a single ruler holds absolute power.

Austria - Hasburgs

A powerful European royal family that ruled Austria, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire, known for their vast empire and dynastic alliances. Austria was the heart of Habsburg power. 

Austria - Holy Roman Empire

The Austrian Habsburgs dominated the Holy Roman Empire, using it to expand their power and influence across Central Europe.

Austria - Vienna

The capital of Austria and the main seat of Habsburg power, serving as a political, cultural, and religious center of the Holy Roman Empire—a place to promote Catholics and arrange marriages, not battles. 

Austria - Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) 

A devastating conflict in Central Europe between Protestants and Catholics that evolved into a struggle for political power among European states. The Habsburgs led the Catholic side, fighting to preserve their dominance in the Holy Roman Empire and suppress Protestant resistance.

Austria - Treaty of Westphalia 1648

The agreement that ended the Thirty Years’ War recognized state sovereignty, granted religious tolerance to Protestants, and weakened Habsburg power.

Austria - Sovereignty

Austria sought to regain complete control over its territories, especially Silesia, challenging Prussia’s authority and asserting its sovereign rights during the conflict.

Ottoman Empire/Turkey - Sultan

The Sultan was the absolute monarch of the Ottoman Empire, combining political, military, and religious authority, overseeing law, taxation, the army, and the administration of the empire, often claiming legitimacy as a defender of Islam.

Ottoman Empire/Turkey - Caliph

The religious and political leader of the Islamic community, considered the successor to the Prophet Muhammad, a role that Ottoman sultans claimed to legitimize their authority over Muslims.

Ottoman Empire/Turkey - Constantinople (1453)

Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire and making the city the new Ottoman capital, Istanbul.

Ottoman Empire/Turkey - Janissaries

Elite infantry soldiers of the Ottoman Empire, originally Christian boys taken through the devshirme system, trained as loyal, professional troops directly under the Sultan’s command.

Prussia - Berlin

The capital of Prussia, serving as the administrative, political, and cultural heart of the state, where the monarchy, government institutions, and military leadership centralized authority to build a strong, disciplined, and efficient state.

Russia - Kiev

The capital of Kievan Rus, an early East Slavic state, which became a major political, cultural, and religious center, especially after adopting Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium.

Russia - ‘Mongol Yoke’

The period from the 13th to 15th centuries when Mongol rulers controlled Russia, extracting tribute and influencing its political structure while isolating it from Western Europe.

Russia - Tsar

The monarch of Russia, claiming supreme political and religious authority, modeled after the Byzantine emperor and centralizing power over the state.

Russia - Peter I (r. 1689-1725)

Russian tsar who modernized and westernized Russia, strengthened the military, centralized government, and expanded territory, transforming it into a major European power.

Russia - Westernization

The process of adopting Western European ideas, technology, culture, and administrative practices, as implemented by Peter the Great to modernize Russia.

Russia - St. Petersburg

A city founded by Peter the Great on the Baltic Sea, built as a “window to the West” and serving as Russia’s new capital and symbol of modernization.

Poland

A neighboring kingdom of Russia whose political weakness and partitions in the 18th century allowed Russia to expand its influence westward. It’s political fragmentation and weak monarchy allowed Russia under Peter the Great and later rulers to expand westward, gaining territory and influence at Poland’s expense.

Elective Monarch

A king chosen by a group of nobles rather than inheriting the throne, as was the case in Poland, which often weakened central authority and made the state vulnerable to foreign influence.

Commonwealth

A political entity, like the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in which a loosely united state had an elective monarchy and shared power among nobles, making it weaker and susceptible to Russian influence and expansion.

Partitions 1772-1795

The three divisions of Poland by Russia, Prussia, and Austria that erased Poland from the map, allowing Russia to gain significant territory and expand its western borders.

The Scientific Rev - Nicholas Copernicus

A Renaissance astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model, asserting that the Sun, not the Earth, is the center of the universe.