ARTH (Online Lecture #3) (Classical Greece)

Persian Wars 490 BCE (Battle of Marathon)

Was a decisive victory where a smaller Greek army of Athenians and Plataeans defeated the invading Persian forces.

480 BCE (Battles of Thermopolae and Salamis) and 479 BCE (Battle of Plataea)

The Battles of Thermopylae, Salamis (480 BCE), and Plataea (479 BCE) were the decisive engagements of the Second Persian Invasion of Greece, ultimately preserving Greek independence and shaping Western civilization.

Battle of Thermopylae (August 480 BCE)

• What happened - Spartan King Leonidas I and a small Greek force blocked the narrow mountain pass against King Xerxes I's massive Persian army.

• The outcome - The Greeks held the pass for three days before a traitor showed the Persians a mountain path to outflank them. Though a tactical defeat, it became a legendary last stand that bought Greece vital time.

Battle of Salamis (September 480 BCE)

• What happened - The Greek fleet, led by Themistocles, lured the larger Persian navy into the narrow Salamis Strait.

• The outcome - The cramped waters neutralized Persian numerical superiority, resulting in a crushing Greek victory that forced Xerxes to retreat to Asia with much of his army.

Battle of Plataea (479 BCE)

• What happened - A massive united Greek hoplite army led by the Spartan general Pausanias confronted the remaining Persian forces under Mardonius in Boeotia.

• The outcome - The heavily armored Greeks routed the Persian army and killed Mardonius, effectively ending the Persian land invasion of mainland Greece.

Delian League

Was an alliance of ancient Greek city-states led by Athens, founded in 478 BCE to protect against the Persian Empire.

Athens

Is the historic capital of Greece, serving as the vibrant, bustling cultural and political heart of the country [0.16] with an urban population of over 3.1 million people.

Pericles (Strategos)

Was a brilliant Greek statesman, orator, and general (strategos) who led Athens during its Golden Age. He wielded so much influence over the city's politics, culture, and military direction that the contemporary historian Thucydides famously dubbed him "the first citizen of Athens". The era of his leadership is widely known today as the "Age of Pericles".

Acropolis

Is an ancient citadel or fortified settlement built on a high hill, with the Acropolis of Athens in Greece being the most famous and significant example.

Acropolis (Key Monuments of the Athens Acropolis)

• The Parthenon - A majestic temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, built during the 5th century BCE as a masterpiece of Doric architecture.

• The Erechtheion - An ancient temple famous for its Porch of the Caryatids, featuring sculpted female figures as support columns.

• The Propylaea - The monumental gateway that serves as the grand entrance to the hilltop site.

• The Temple of Athena Nike - A small, elegant ionic temple greeting visitors near the entrance.

Parthenon 447-438 BCE

Was built on the Acropolis of Athens between 447 and 438 BCE as a temple dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena.

Parthenon (Key Facts)

• Purpose - Built to honor Athena Parthenos ("Athena the Virgin") and to serve as the treasury for the Delian League.

• Leadership & Design - Commissioned by the Athenian statesman Pericles, designed by architects Ictinus and Callicrates, and supervised by the master sculptor Phidias.

• Architecture - Constructed from white Pentelic marble as the ultimate expression of the Doric architectural order.

• Timeline - The main structure was finished in 438 BCE, though outer sculptural decorations (like the metopes, frieze, and pediments) continued until 432 BCE.

Architect Iktinus

Was a celebrated ancient Greek architect who lived and worked during the 5th century BCE in the age of Pericles.

Architect Iktinus (Famous Works)

• The Parthenon - He co-designed this famous temple on the Athenian Acropolis with the architect Callicrates and the sculptor Phidias between 447 and 432 BCE.

• Temple of Apollo Epicurius - Located at Bassae, this temple features the earliest known use of a Corinthian column.

• The Telesterion - He helped rebuild and enlarge this massive Hall of Mysteries at Eleusis, where secret religious rites took place.

Sculpture by Phideas Erechtheion

With the Erechtheion's south porch are the famous caryatids (or Korai), six sculpted maiden figures that serve as architectural columns supporting the roof.

Sculpture by Phideas Erechtheion (Key Details)

• The Sculptures - Six draped female figures (korai) stand in a graceful contrapposto stance with intricate braided hair designed to add structural strength to their necks.

• The Temple - The Erechtheion is an Ionic-style temple on the Acropolis of Athens, built between 421 and 406 BCE.

• Phidias's Role - While ancient tradition and some modern sources associate the overall architectural and sculptural program of the Acropolis Golden Age with the master sculptor Phidias, the specific design and carving of the Erechtheion and its Caryatids are often attributed by modern scholars to other architects or masons like Mnesicles, created shortly after Phidias's main active period.

• Current Location - Five of the original marble Caryatids are housed safely in the Acropolis Museum in Athens, the sixth is in the British Museum in London, and replicas stand on the actual temple porch.

421-405 BCE-Caryatid porch

Is the famous southern porch of the Erechtheion temple on the Acropolis of Athens, constructed between 421 and 405 BCE.

421-405 BCE-Caryatid porch (Key Features)

• The Figures - Six sculpted female figures, known as Caryatids (or maidens), serve as structural support columns instead of traditional pillars. A Caryatid is a sculpted female figure that acts as a pillar.

• Design - Each figure wears a traditional Greek peplos with intricate drapery that mimics the fluting of a column, standing on a low wall while gracefully balancing the roof's weight.

• Location & Protection - The original statues are safely housed in the Acropolis Museum in Athens, while weather-resistant replicas stand in their place on the Acropolis.

Temple of Apollo Epicurius (the aid-bringer) at Bassae

Is a highly celebrated, exceptionally well-preserved classical Greek temple built in the late 5th century BCE (around 420-400 BCE). Located in a remote, rugged mountainous plateau of Arcadia in the Peloponnese peninsula of Greece, it stands at an elevation of 1,131 meters above sea level.

Temple of Apollo Epicurius (the aid-bringer) at Bassae (Meaning of "Epicurius" (The Aid-Bringer)

The epithet Epicurius (or Epikourios) translates to "the Helper" or "the Healer". According to the ancient Greek traveler Pausanias, the residents of the nearby city-state of Phigaleia dedicated the temple to Apollo because they believed the god had delivered them from a devastating plague during the Peloponnesian War. Another theory suggests the name pays homage to Apollo as a god of mercenaries (epikouroi), which the Arcadian region was famous for supplying.

429-400 BCE –Corinthian order with acanthus capital

Marks one of the earliest uses of this ornate architecture style, famously seen inside the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae.

Corinthian order with acanthus capital (Key Features)

• Most Ornate Style - It is the most decorative and slender of the three ancient Greek architectural orders (alongside Doric and Ionic).

• Acanthus Capital - The top of the column (the capital) features distinctive, intricately carved stylized leaves from the acanthus plant, mimicking vegetation growing around a bell-shaped core.

• Proportions - Columns are tall, slender, and fluted with vertical grooves, holding a height-to-diameter ratio of about 10:1.

Architect-Iktinus

Was a celebrated ancient Greek architect active in Athens during the mid-5th century BCE under the leadership of Pericles.

Architect-Iktinus (Major Works)

• The Parthenon (447–432 BCE) - Co-designed with Callicrates on the Athenian Acropolis, serving as the pinnacle of classical Doric architecture.

• Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae - Designed as a masterwork featuring the earliest known use of a Corinthian column inside the cella.

• Telesterion at Eleusis - Contributed to the design and enlargement of the great hall used for the secret Eleusinian Mysteries.

Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, 334 BCE

In Athens, built in 334 BCE, is the sole surviving monument of its kind used to display a theatrical victory prize.

Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (Key Facts)

• Location - Plaka neighborhood, near the Acropolis in Athens, Greece.

• Purpose - Commissioned by the wealthy arts patron (choregos) Lysicrates to hold the winning bronze tripod trophy from the City Dionysia festival.

• Architecture - Features a high square stone base topped by a circular marble rotunda with some of the earliest exterior Corinthian columns ever built.

• Design - Decorated with a carved frieze showing the god Dionysus turning pirates into dolphins.

• Legacy - Heavily inspired Neoclassical and Greek Revival architects centuries later.

Hellenistic Civilization after the Macedonian conquest of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great

Began after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE and lasted until the Roman conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt in 30 BCE.

Hellenistic Civilization (The Division of the Empire)

• The Successors - After Alexander died without a clear heir, his top generals—known as the Diadochi—fought for control in a series of long wars.

• Three Main Kingdoms - By 300 BCE, the vast empire split into three primary dynasties: the Antigonid dynasty in Macedon and Greece, the Seleucid Empire in Asia and Syria, and the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt.

Philip of Macedon (conquests of Greek world 359-336 BCE) and Alexander the Great (died 323 BCE)

Philip II of Macedon (reigned 359–336 BCE) united Greece under Macedonian rule, and his son Alexander the Great (reigned 336–323 BCE) used that military machine to conquer the Persian Empire and expand into India.

Philip II of Macedon (359–336 BCE)

• Military Reform - Philip built a powerful army by introducing the sarissa (a long pike) and perfecting the Macedonian phalanx.

• Conquest of Greece - He defeated Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE.

• League of Corinth - He united the Greek city-states into an alliance called the League of Corinth with himself as leader (hegemon).

• Assassination - He was killed in 336 BCE during a wedding celebration before he could invade Persia.

Alexander the Great (336–323 BCE)

• Inherited Legacy - Alexander took over a wealthy kingdom, a battle-tested army, and plans to attack Persia.

• Overthrow of Persia - He defeated the Achaemenid Empire and its king, Darius III, across major battles in Asia Minor, Egypt, and Mesopotamia.

• Expansion into India - He marched as far as India in 326 BCE before his exhausted troops forced him to turn back.

• Death and Legacy - He died in Babylon in 323 BCE at age 32, spreading Greek culture (Hellenism) and leaving his empire to his generals (the Diadochi).

Battle of Issus 333 BCE

Took place on November 5, 333 BC, in southern Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), marking a decisive victory for Alexander the Great over the Persian King Darius |||.

Battle of Issus 333 BCE (Key Details)

• Date - November 5, 333 BC

• Location - Near the Gulf of İskenderun on the Pinarus River in southern Turkey

• Belligerents - The Hellenic (Macedonian) League led by Alexander the Great vs. the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire led by Darius III

Battle of Issus 333 BCE (The Conflict and Strategy)

• The Setup - Darius III moved his large Persian army behind the Macedonian forces, cutting off Alexander's supply lines. This forced Alexander to countermarch and engage on a narrow coastal plain.

• The Terrain Advantage - The tight space near the Pinarus River neutralized the numerical superiority of the Persian army, preventing them from outflanking the Macedonians.

• The Turning Point - Alexander led a daring cavalry charge directly at the Persian left flank and pushed toward Darius III himself.

• The Outcome - Overwhelmed and panicked by the breakthrough, Darius III fled the battlefield. The fleeing Persian forces routed, and Darius left behind his royal family and treasury, which Alexander captured.

From Polis to Cosmopolis

The shift from polis (the independent Greek city-state) to cosmopolis (a universal, world-spanning community) marks the historic transition from localized, autonomous civic life to a vast, multicultural society under sweeping monarchies and empires.

From Polis to Cosmopolis (What the Shift Means)

• From City-State to Empire - The polis was a small, self-sufficient political unit where citizens engaged directly in local politics. The cosmopolis (literally "world-city") expanded the horizon to a global community, driven by the conquests of Alexander the Great and later the Roman Empire.

• Cultural Blending - Localized Greek culture (Hellenic) transformed into a widespread, shared culture (Hellenistic) that mixed Greek language, philosophy, and arts with Eastern and Mesopotamian traditions.

• Political Power - Rule shifted from citizen assemblies in a local agora to distant monarchs and emperors who used patronage and grand architecture to manage vast populations.