Psychology 101 - Final Exam - Vocabulary

Systematic desensitization

a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat specific phobias

Biomedical therapy

prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology

Personality disorders

a group of disorders characterized by enduring inner experiences or behavior patterns that differ from the person’s cultural norms and expectations, are pervasive and inflexible, begin in adolescence or early adulthood, are stable over time, and cause distress or impairment

Somatic symptom disorder

a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause

Self-efficacy

our sense of competence and effectiveness

Mere exposure effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

Conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Positive punishment

an event that decreases a behavior by administering a negative stimulus

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Young-helmholtz trichromatic theory

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

Top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Neurocognitive disorders

acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer’s disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. Also called dementia in older adults

Adolescence

the transition period from childhood to young adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Endorphins

“morphine within”—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Neuroplasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Independent variable

in an experiment, the variable that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Person-centered therapy

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the client directs the discussion and the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within an accepting, genuine, empathic environment to facilitate clients’ growth. (Also called client-centered therapy.)

Binge eating disorder

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory behavior that marks bulimia nervosa

Bipolar disorders

disorders in which a person experiences the overexcited state of mania (or milder hypomania), and usually experiences periods of depression. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.)

Cognitive therapy

therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

Trait

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members

Anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings

Recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

Negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: it is not punishment.)

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Subliminal stimulation

presenting something below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

Attachment

an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation

Embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

Amygdala

two almond-shaped neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

Sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

Biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. Some _______ psychologists call themselves neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists

Regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average

Epigenetics

“above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change)

Social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory

Observational learning

learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)

Preoperational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

Empirical approach

an evidence-based method that draws on observation and experimentation

Biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Psychological disorder

a disturbance in people’s thoughts, emotions, or behaviors that causes distress or suffering and impairs their daily lives

Endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Cognitive behavioral therapy

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer. (Also known as a secondary reinforcer.)

Formal operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (usually beginning about age 12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Limbic system

neural system located mostly in the forebrain—below the cerebral hemispheres—that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus; associated with emotions and drives

Peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Eclectic approach

an approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy

Retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember information from one’s past

Operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

Autism spectrum disorder

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by limitations in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

Ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group

Encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories—of facts and events—for storage

Unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, and nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

Active listening

empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and seeks clarification. A feature of Rogers’ person-centered therapy

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

Emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, __________ travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Panic disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations; often followed by worry over a possible next attack

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Rumination

compulsive fretting; overthinking our problems and their causes

Social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Accommodation

adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information

Variable

anything that can vary and is practical and ethical to measure

Antisocial personality disorder

a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist

Reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

Implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Schizophrenia

a disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression

Big five factors

researchers identified five factors—openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism—that describe personality. (Also called the five-factor model.)

Associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)

Developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social development throughout the life span

Dendrites

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages from axons, conducting impulses toward the cell body

Self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably

Place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated. (Also called place coding.)