Chapter 5 DCUSH

Chapter 5 broken into parts for memorization

Overview

When Britain’s King George III and Parliament ignored the colonies’ petitions and imposed severe restrictions, the colonies declared their independence. This action triggered a war with Great Britain that the colonies, despite odds, won. While the Revolutionary War raged, Americans drafted the Articles of Confederation, a document that provided a weak central government. After the war, the states began writing new constitutions and the nation faced numerous challenges, including the inability of the Articles of Confederation to provide a strong and effective government.

Alternate View

Traditional U.S. history texts described the Revolution as a colonial rebellion against an oppressive imperial government, leading to a radical transformation in politics and society. In the 20th century, historians debated how radical that transformation truly was. Some viewed it as the birth of a democratic republic that encouraged later revolutions, while others saw it as a conservative movement to preserve existing liberties rather than create new ones.

The First Continental Congress

The Intolerable Acts drove all the colonies except Georgia to send delegates to a convention in Philadelphia in September 1774. The purpose of the convention—later known as the First Continental Congress—was to respond to what the delegates viewed as Britain’s alarming threats to their liberties. Most Americans had no desire for independence; they simply wanted to protest parliamentary infringements and restore the relationship with the crown that had existed before the Seven Years’ War.

Delegates

The delegates to the First Continental Congress were a diverse group whose views about the crisis ranged from radical to conservative. The radical faction—those demanding the greatest concessions from Britain—included Patrick Henry of Virginia and the Adams cousins of Massachusetts, Samuel and John. The moderates included George Washington of Virginia and John Dickinson of Pennsylvania. The conservative delegates—those who favored a mild statement of protest—included John Jay of New York and Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania. Unrepresented were the loyalists, who would not challenge the king’s government in any way.

Actions of the Congress

The delegates voted on a series of proposed measures, each intended to change British policy without offending moderates and conservatives.

1. Suffolk Resolves. These rejected the Intolerable Acts and called for their immediate repeal. The Resolves urged the colonies to resist them by making military preparations and by boycotting British goods.

2. Declaration and Resolves. This petition urged the king to redress colonial grievances and restore colonial rights. In a conciliatory gesture, it recognized Parliament’s authority to regulate commerce.

3. Continental Association. A network of committees was established to enforce the economic sanctions of the Suffolk Resolves.

4. Future Meeting. If colonial rights were not recognized, delegates would meet again in May 1775.

Fighting Begins

As predicted, the king’s government soon declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and sent additional troops to put down disorders there.

Lexington and Concord

On April 18, 1775, General Thomas Gage, the commander of British troops in Boston, sent a large force to seize colonial military supplies in the town of Concord. Paul Revere and William Dawes warned the militia (the Minutemen) of Lexington, who assembled on the village green to face the British. Eight of the Americans were killed in the brief encounter. The British then continued their march to Concord, where they destroyed some military supplies. On the return march to Boston, hundreds of militiamen fired at the troops from behind stone walls. The British suffered 250 casualties and became the first victims of the American Revolution.

Bunker Hill

Two months later, on June 17, 1775, the first true battle of the war took place when a colonial militia of Massachusetts farmers fortified Breed’s Hill, next to Bunker Hill, for which the ensuing battle is wrongly named. A British force attacked the colonists’ position and managed to take the hill, suffering over a thousand casualties. Americans claimed a victory of sorts, having inflicted heavy losses on the attacking British army.

The Second Continental Congress

Soon after the fighting broke out in Massachusetts, delegates to the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in May 1775. The Congress was divided. One group of delegates, mainly from New England, thought the colonies should declare their independence. Another group, mainly from the middle colonies, hoped that the conflict could be resolved by negotiating a new relationship with Great Britain.

Military Actions

The Congress adopted a Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms and called on the colonies to provide troops. George Washington was appointed the commander-in-chief of a new colonial army and sent to Boston to lead the Massachusetts militia and volunteer units from other colonies. The Congress also authorized a force under Benedict Arnold to raid Quebec in order to draw Canada away from the British empire. An American navy and marine corps were organized in the fall of 1775 for the purpose of attacking British shipping.

Peace Efforts

At first, the colonies did not want independence. Many hoped the king would intercede with Parliament to secure peace and protection of colonial rights. In July 1775, the delegates sent an Olive Branch Petition to King George III, in which they pledged their loyalty and asked the king to intercede with Parliament to secure peace and the protection of colonial rights.

King George angrily dismissed the petition and instead agreed to Parliament’s Prohibitory Act (August 1775), which declared the colonies in rebellion. A few months later, Parliament forbade all trade and shipping between Britain and the colonies.

Thomas Paine’s Argument for Independence

In January 1776, a pamphlet was published that soon had a profound impact on public opinion and the future course of events. The essay, titled Common Sense and written by Thomas Paine, a recent English immigrant to the colonies, argued strongly for what until then had been considered a radical idea—independence. Paine argued in clear and forceful language that the colonies should become independent states and break all political ties with the British monarchy. It was contrary to common sense, Paine argued, for a large continent to be ruled by a small and distant island and for people to pledge allegiance to a king whose government was corrupt and whose laws were unreasonable.

The Declaration of Independence

After a year of military conflict and a year of political debate, the colonies declared independence. Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution on June 7, 1776, declaring the colonies to be independent. Five delegates, including Thomas Jefferson, formed a committee to draft a declaration. Jefferson’s work, which listed specific grievances against George III’s government and expressed the basic principles that justified revolution, was adopted on July 4, 1776.

The Revolutionary War

The war between Great Britain and the colonies lasted eight years. It was a long and hard-fought struggle that tested the endurance of both the American patriots and the British empire.

Patriots

The largest number of patriots were from the New England states and Virginia. Most of the soldiers were reluctant to travel outside their own region, so the army was chronically short of supplies, poorly equipped, and rarely paid. George Washington never had more than 20,000 troops under his command at one time.

African Americans

Initially, both sides prohibited African Americans from serving in the army. However, when the British promised freedom to enslaved people who joined their side, Congress quickly made the same offer. About 5,000 African Americans fought as patriots, most of them free citizens from the North who took part in several important battles, including Bunker Hill.

Loyalists

Those who maintained their allegiance to the king were called Loyalists, or Tories (the name of the majority party in Parliament). They were usually wealthier and more conservative than the Patriots. Most government officials and Anglican clergy in America remained loyal to the crown.

At the end of the war, about 80,000 Loyalists emigrated rather than face persecution, especially to Canada or Britain.

American Indians

Most American Indians supported the British, who had promised to limit colonial settlements in the West.

Initial American Losses and Hardships

The first three years of the war, 1775 to 1777, went badly for Washington’s poorly trained and equipped revolutionary army. After losing badly in a series of battles between 1776 and 1777, including the loss of New York City to the British, Washington’s demoralized troops suffered through the severe winter of 1777–1778 camped at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania. Economic troubles added to the colonists’ woes. Because the British occupation of American ports drastically reduced trade, goods were scarce and inflation was rampant. Paper money issued by Congress was almost worthless.

Alliance With France

The news of the American victory at the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777 was a turning point for the American revolutionaries. Diplomatic efforts of an American delegation in Paris that included Benjamin Franklin resulted in a military alliance with France in 1778. France openly allied itself with the Americans. Not only did the French alliance widen the war and force the British to divert military resources away from America, but it also proved a decisive factor in the American victory.

Victory

By 1780, the British army had adopted a southern strategy, concentrating its military campaigns in Virginia and the Carolinas, where Loyalists were especially numerous. Aided by French naval and military forces, Washington’s army forced the surrender of a large British army commanded by General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia, on October 19, 1781. The last major battle of the Revolutionary War was fought near the Chesapeake Bay, and strongly supported by the French navy. After news of Yorktown, heavy losses in the war, and pressure from Parliament, the British government and the American representatives entered into peace talks in Paris.

The Treaty of Paris

The war officially ended with the signing of a peace treaty in Paris in 1783. The Treaty of Paris provided for the following:

1. Britain would recognize the existence of the United States as an independent nation.

2. The Mississippi River would be the western boundary of that nation.

3. Americans would have fishing rights off the coast of Canada.

4. Americans would pay debts owed to British merchants and honor Loyalist claims for property confiscated during the war.

Organization of New Governments

As the United States gained independence, Americans were faced with the task of reorganizing their governments. Ten of the former colonies had written new constitutions between 1776 and 1777.

State Governments

Each state’s constitution was the subject of heated debate between conservatives, who stressed the need for law and order, and liberals, who were concerned about protecting individual rights. Although the details differed from one document to another, most of the state constitutions had these features in common:

1. List of Rights. Each state constitution began with a “bill” or “declaration” listing the basic rights and freedoms, such as jury trial and freedom of religion, that belonged to all citizens and that state officials could not infringe.

2. Separation of Powers. Most state governments had three separate branches—legislative powers to an elected two-house legislature, executive powers to an elected governor, and judicial powers to a system of courts. The principle of separation of powers was intended to safeguard against tyranny.

3. Voting. The right to vote was extended to all white males who owned some property.

4. Office-Holding. Those seeking election to office were usually held to a higher property qualification than voters.

The Articles of Confederation

At Philadelphia in 1776, while Thomas Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Independence, John Dickinson drafted the first constitution for the United States as a nation. Congress modified Dickinson’s plan to protect the powers of the individual states. The Articles of Confederation were adopted by Congress in 1777 and submitted to the states for ratification. Ratification was delayed by a dispute over the vast American Indian lands west of the Alleghenies. The Articles were finally ratified in March 1781, after Virginia and New York agreed to cede their claims to western lands.

Structure of Government

The Articles of Confederation established a central government that consisted of just one body, a congress. In this unicameral (one-house) legislature, each state was given one vote, with at least nine votes out of thirteen required to pass important laws. Amending the Articles required a unanimous vote. A Committee of States, with one representative from each state, could make minor decisions when the full congress was not in session.

Powers

The Articles gave the congress the power to wage war, make treaties, send diplomatic representatives, and borrow money. However, Congress did not have the power to regulate commerce or to collect taxes; it had to rely on taxes voted by each state.

Accomplishments

Despite its weaknesses, the Articles of Confederation accomplished three important things:

1. Winning the War. The United States government could claim some credit for the ultimate victory of Washington’s army and for negotiating favorable terms in the treaty of peace with Britain.

2. Land Ordinance of 1785. Congress established a policy for surveying and selling the western lands. The policy provided for setting aside one section of land in each township for public education.

3. Northwest Ordinance of 1787. For the large territory lying between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River, Congress passed an ordinance that set the rules for creating new states. The granted limited self-government to the developing territory and prohibited slavery in the region.

Problems with the Articles

The weaknesses of the government under the Articles became more apparent as the states refused to adhere to the Articles and as the central government lacked the power to enforce its decisions.

1. Financial. Most war debts were unpaid. Congress and the states issued worthless paper money. Congress had no taxing power and could only request that the states donate money for national needs.

2. Foreign. European nations had little respect for a new nation that could neither pay its debts nor take effective and united action in a crisis. Britain and Spain took advantage of the weakness by threatening to expand their interests in the western lands soon after the war ended.

3. Domestic. In 1786, Captain Daniel Shays, a Massachusetts farmer and Revolutionary War veteran, led other farmers in an uprising against high state taxes, imprisonment for debt, and lack of paper money. The state militia of Massachusetts broke Shays’s Rebellion in January 1787. The rebellion helped people realize that the national government under the Articles was too weak to deal with domestic problems.

Abolition of Aristocratic Titles

State constitutions and laws abolished old institutions that had originated in medieval Europe. No legislature could grant titles of nobility, nor could courts recognize the feudal practice of primogeniture (the first-born son’s right to inherit his family’s property). Many Loyalists, whose lands were confiscated by the Patriots, never returned to America.

Separation of Church and State

One idea that had a widespread impact on postrevolutionary American thinking was the separation of church and state. Most states adopted this principle, which meant that they refused to give financial support to any religious denomination. For example, the Virginia legislature, in 1786, ratified the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, written by Thomas Jefferson.

Women

During the Revolutionary War, women maintained colonial families and farms and provided food and clothing for the war effort. In some cases, they even fought in battle (as Mary McCauley, known as “Molly Pitcher,” did at the Battle of Monmouth) or took part in maintaining the nation’s economy (as Deborah Sampson did by passing as a man and serving in the army).

While women’s essential contributions to the war effort were widely recognized, the idea of male superiority was strongly reasserted in the new United States. Abigail Adams wrote to her husband, John Adams, “I desire you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors.” Her plea went largely unheeded.

Slavery

The institution of slavery contradicted the spirit of the Revolution and the idea that “all men are created equal.” The Continental Congress abolished the importation of enslaved people, and most northern states ended slavery. However, in the South, the plantation economy and the demand for enslaved labor continued, guaranteeing that slavery would remain a significant issue in the new nation.

Historical Perspectives: How Radical Was the Revolution?

How radical was the American Revolution? One viewpoint, expressed by historians like Crane Brinton in The Anatomy of a Revolution (1938), is that the American Revolution followed a similar pattern to later revolutions in France and Russia, in which moderate reformers were replaced by radical insurgents and then by reactionaries.

Some historians emphasize the conservative nature of the Revolution. They argue that the colonists sought to preserve their political and economic rights rather than create new ones. According to this view, the movement for independence had little effect on social and economic relationships and did not drastically alter colonial society.

More recently, scholars have reexamined the Revolution in the context of later revolutions around the world. They note that in many ways the American Revolution resembled other colonial rebellions of the 20th century in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. These revolutions, like America’s, began with demands for home rule and evolved into wars for independence.