CMN 112 Final Exam - UCD Winter 2026 w/Zhang

what are the 3 fundamental Communicator Characteristics?

(these define and distinguish effective communicators)

Authority

Credibility

Social Attractiveness

____________ → Avoiding Punishment, Gaining Reward → Persuasion

Authority

____________ → Internalization → Persuasion

Credibility

____________ → Identification → [High level of] Persuasion

Attractiveness

-influencing others through compliance

-fear of punishment, wanting to gain a reward

Authority

-influencing others through internalization

-if we perceive a person as credible, we're more likely to accept messages by that person (if our perception of their behavior is congruent with our own values)

Credibility

-achieved through affective processes, like identification

Social Attractiveness

What are the concepts related to credibility?

Legitimacy

-authority

Expertise

-credentials, knowledge

Trustworthiness

-behavior, status, charisma, attractiveness, PERCEIVED BIAS: KNOWLEDGE REPORTING

Goodwill

what components of speech influence Logos (logic/reason/proof)?

-structure of the speech (opening/body/conclusion)

-references to studies, statistics, case studies

-comparisons, analogies, and metaphors

what components of speech influence Ethos (credibility/trust)

-personal branding

-confidence in delivery

-cites credible courses

in topic with ethos, why do people believe in the messages? What are the theoretical mechanisms underlying the establishment of trust?

a part of the trust comes from the source

The theoretical mechanisms underlying the establishment of trust:

-Expertise

-Trustworthiness

-Goodwill

what is Expertise:

knowledge or ability that is ascribed to the communicator

what is Trustworthiness:

-communicator's perceived honesty and character

-includes perception of SOURCES OF BIASES

what is Goodwill:

perception that the speaker has the listener's best interest in heart, that they are empathetic towards their needs

which of these theoretical trust mechanisms are more apparent, and which is more-so tone?

Expertise and Trustworthiness is more apparent

Goodwill is more tone

What is Milgram's definition of Authority?:

"A legitimate authority is someone who is presumed to have 'the right to prescribe behavior' for others"

Authority is:

influencing others through compliance

-fear of punishment, wanting to gain a reward

-not the same as credibility

what examples from class had to do with Authority?

The Milgram Experiment:

-(participants were instructed to deliver what they believed were painful electric shocks to another person. It revealed that many people were willing to follow orders, even if it meant harming someone else, when directed by an authority figure)

The Stanford Prison Experiment:

-(college students were assigned roles of guards or prisoners in a simulated prison, and it quickly escalated as participants internalized their roles. It showed how situational power and social roles can lead to abusive behavior and loss of personal identity)

What is legitimacy?:

Legitimacy is the right and acceptance of an AUTHORITY

-An authority viewed as legitimate often has the right and justification to exercise power

legitimacy is often constructed through media representation

-especially in authoritarian regimes

-people infer a lot of characters of authoritative figures

-sometimes equated with power and control

-sense of legitimacy constructed through external, third party groups

What is McCroskey's definition of Credibility?

"the attitude toward a source of communication held at a given time by a receiver"

Credibility is:

___________ perceived by the receiver

-audience made up of individual receivers who have individual perceptions of credibility

what are the components of Credibility?

EXPERTISE

TRUSTWORTHINESS

GOODWILL

expertise

knowledge or ability ascribed to the communicator

conferred by credentials (individuals and organizations)

inferred from knowledge

-ability to talk deeply about a particular subject

-level of knowledge one has

-remember the example of embarrassing Betsy Devos during her confirmation hearing cuz of lack of knowledge-conferred by credentials (individuals and organizations)

trustworthiness

communicator's perceived honesty, character, and safety (appearing safe to the receiver)

individuals

-inferred from behavior

-behave in ways that are congruent with our own values

institutions (e.g. media)

-conferred by status, history (ex: New York Times)

-inferred from actions (ex: CNN retracted a story about a Trump campaign aid)

goodwill

perceived caring; empathetic to audiences

Overall, the definition of Credibility is:

JUDGMENT BY AN AUDIENCE

-of a communicator or an institution,

-about a topic or an issue,

-on criteria including expertise & trustworthiness (dynamism/charisma, perceived status & power, attractiveness, warmth, likeability)

-contributing to higher influence

Does credibility work? (Five Decades of Evidence - Pornpitakpan, 2004):

Five decades of evidence w/more than 700 findings

-small effects range of 5-9%

-target low involved audiences

-Concluded that EXPERTISE IS THE MOST IMPORTANT ASPECT OF CREDIBILITY

what is the most important aspect of credibility?

expertise

Attributing Reasons as Basis for Credibility Judgments

-perceived bias → lowered trustworthiness

-knowledge bias (biased view): insider but one-side vs insider but both sides (ex: non-smoker vs former smoker)

-reporting bias: knows both but... avoiding unflattering info | persuader only sharing what they want you to hear (ex: scientists only report significant effects)

what components of speech influence Pathos (emotions/values)?

-stories

-inspirational quotes

-vivid language

knowledge bias

the presumption that a communicator has a biased view of an issue. It is an audience member's belief that the speaker's background (gender, ethnicity, religion, age) has prevented him/her from looking objectively at the various sides of the issue. The audience member concludes that the communicator has a limited base of knowledge, produced by a need to view an issue in accord with the dominant views of her social group.

-communicators who are perceived to harbor knowledge biases lack credibility and do not change attitudes

-when communicators are perceived to violate the knowledge bias, they gain credibility

Reporting bias

the perception that the communicator has opted not to report or disclose certain facts or points of view

-a communicator can withhold facts that they think might upset the group

-tailoring statements to fit the ideology of the group being addressed

-when individuals believe that speakers are guilty of reporting bias, they lose credibility

-when the speaker violates the reporting bias, the speaker gains credibility

-BUT when a speaker violates the bias, but takes a position that a group finds offensive, the speaker gets points for honesty, but loses more for taking a position that is inconsistent with the audience's values (when it comes to strong attitudes, people seem to prefer a mildly insincere communicator who shares their values to a sincere speaker who opposes a position they believe)

what is Rhetoric?

Rhetoric refers to the use of arguments, language, and public address to influence audiences

-it is more about examining the connotations of languages than examining the influences (empirically)

Ancient Greece (5th and 4th centuries BCE)

good public speaking was a skill that was highly valued in Ancient Greece

what are the Sophists?

Sophists were teachers that focused on oratory, specifically persuasive, public speaking

-thought of themselves as DEMOCRATS and REVOLUTIONARIES

why were Sophists thought of as Democrats

because of their ability and willingness to teach people across social classes, no matter who you are

Why were Sophists thought of as Revolutionaries?:

because they taught practical and everyday knowledge rather than traditional formal education that was more typical of the times

Sophists discounted _________ knowledge, looking instead for ____________ knowledge

discounted objective knowledge, looking instead for RELATIVE knowledge

-relative beliefs and the way we present and share information is what allows one to create a particular argument

-more focused on the way we get across a point and the way we use our logos and pathos to support our point, rather than the truth of the matter (objective knowledge)

more on Sophist belief:

-what is true for one person may not be true to another

-could manipulate logic, easily able to win either side of an argument

-selective presentation of information

-focused on simple, persuasive appeals

-not everyone agreed with the Sophists

To Plato, the Sophists are:

Anti-logical

Eristic

-they sought to prove or disprove certain points rather than promoting truth

Worthless

-he felt that they put argument before truth

Aristotle

his insights bridge Plato and the Sophists by highlighting the importance of truth while also recognizing that persuasion could be an important tool

-led to Aristotle developing the first theory on persuasion

who developed the first theory on persuasion?

Aristotle

Aristotle's Rhetoric

the goal of rhetoric wasn't so much finding the truth of a matter as convincing an audience to make the best decision about that matter

Practical Wisdom

-we provide people with tools to make the best decisions about a particular truth

Aristotle argued that persuasion had 3 main ingredients:

logos, ethos, and pathos

What are the Fundamentals of the Message?

-Structure

-Content

-Framing

-Language

-Emotional appeals

Structure includes/entails

-sidedness

-conclusion drawing

-order of presentation

Content includes/entails

evidence vs narrative

Language includes/entails

speed, power, & intensity

Emotional Appeals include/entail

fear & guilt

(Message Structure)

3 factors to consider when structuring a message:

1. message sidedness

2. conclusion drawing

3. order of presentation

Message Sidedness

whether a message presents only one perspective (one-sided) or both sides of an issue (two-sided)

-one-sided: present only the speaker's position, ignoring opposing views

-two-sided: acknowledge opposing viewpoints and then refute or contextualize them

two sided = more persuasive (only if two sided disproves oppositional argument, aka why the other argument is not relevant)

-^ enhances credibility of speaker

-one-sided makes it seem like other side is stronger

Conclusion Drawing

clean, explicit conclusions that will ALWAYS have a clean call to action/purpose

Order of Presentation

order of importance; timeline

-generally, middle stuff could get lost

varies based on overall goals and what audience's beliefs are

-if people already agree → use emotional story

-if not → highlight evidence/stats

-could have same speech, but different order for effectiveness

(Message Content)

two important factors:

evidence & narrative

Evidence

use of factual statements, quantitative information, opinions advanced by (other) credible sources

Narrative

-symbolic representation of events

-use of characters, plotlines, and dramatic devices

-helps audience identify with who's being presented

-really effective because of combination of perceived efficacy (success) and strong emotional appeal (when able to connect)

A good narrative is stronger than evidence alone. What is an example of this?

ex: one specific child vs # of children

ELM → more likely with narrative AND evidence

(Message Framing)

what is a frame?

an overarching way an idea is communicated

-different mental frameworks → framing stats/stories in a way that gets arousal from audience

-Ex: Trump using harsh words about abortion, but those words relate to emotions of conservatives

-using words to establish a framework through which you can see an argument (words used or encompassed within it)

-Examples:

"Estate tax" vs "death tax"

90% survival vs 10% mortality

Global warming vs climate change

-using particular words (when & how) to reach a certain audience

what is an Argument?

(Argument is NOT a disagreement between parties)

Argument is reasoning that gets us to a conclusion from premises

(premises are:

-implicit or explicit (at least one MUST be explicit)

-assumptions

-the basis for a claim)

Arguments consist of what 3 things?

Claims, Support, and Warrants

Claim:

(aka conclusion)

= what are you trying to prove?

Support:

(aka premise)

= materials used to convince the audience that claim is sound

Warrant:

(aka broader premise)

= implicit or explicit assumption, belief, principle, supporting soundness of relationship between support and claim

Example of an argument with Claim, Support, and Warrant

Claim: we should lift all COVID19 restrictions now

Support: people can go out the population can get herd immunity

Warrant: herd immunity happens when the majority of a certain population (typically 70-90%) becomes immune to a disease

anthropocentric:

human centered approach

Non-anthropocentric:

all species approach

example of an Anthropocentric argument:

Claim: we should protect the environment

Support: protecting the environment is to ensure our future

Warrant: nature provides essential resources for our survival and enjoyment

example of a Non-anthropocentric argument:

Claim: we should protect the environment

Support: protecting the environment is to ensure nature's sustainability

Warrant: sustaining the earth ecosystem is vital for all lives and species' survival

What is Narrative Persuasion?:

The arguments are constructed and delivered via a narrative; these include

→ transportation

→ identification

(regarding Narrative Persuasion)

what is transportation?

the process whereby fiction imaginatively takes people to different psychological places, sometimes producing a change in attitude or perspective

(regarding Narrative Persuasion)

what is identification?

an imaginative experience in which a person can adopt someone else's point of view and experience the other person's motivations, thoughts, and feelings

How do narratives persuade?

-cohesive, causally linked sequence of events

-once you accept the premises (what has happened), you are likely to accept the conclusion (the ending result)

-have elements of an argument → BUT easy for audiences to grasp + pathos

-persuasive narratives are a kind of argument

how is narrative persuasion different from the credibility approach

Narrative persuasion can be counter-argued if audiences deem it as overgeneralization or hasty generalization

"These are Just Stories"

→relying on a single case scenario to argue for a general conclusion

→personal evidence ≠ general patterns

What is hasty generalization?:

a fallacy in which a conclusion is NOT logically justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence. It may be a faulty generalization, OR a biased generalization jumping to a conclusion

O'Keefe | Mood matters

-Guilt Appeals

Interpersonal Persuasion

-focus is on the two-person unit

(not just psychology of the individual)

-centers on changing behavior

(not just attitudes)

-explores techniques for interpersonal, rather than political/social objectives (individual gain in the interpersonal context)

What is Dissonance?:

Lack of harmony

For Ex.,:

-discord (disagreement), incongruity, strife (conflict)

-among thoughts OR mental elements

what is Cognitive Dissonance?

a negative, unpleasant state that occurs whenever a person holds two cognitions that are PYSCHOLOGICALLY inconsistent

(Psychologically ≠ logically)

Hypocrisy Induction

a persuasive strategy used to change attitudes or behaviors by making people aware of the inconsistency between their values/beliefs and their actual behavior

-suppose we freely choose to do something inconsistent with our beliefs, and we cannot rationalize it. Then we're in dissonance

-induce dissonance and let person change own attitude

-confront people with their hypocrisy (makes them aware of inconsistency)

Inconsistencies

draw attention to inconsistency

-Hypocrisy Induction

-Until now:

Attitude change → behavior (change)

-Dissonance: Behavior change → attitude change

(but they must persuade themselves to adopt the new attitude)

Transgression Compliance

this is a persuasive tactic where someone is more likely to comply with a request after committing a transgression (especially if they feel guilty about it)

-refers to the phenomenon where inducing guilt increases the chances that person will comply with a request, usually as a way to reduce their guilt

-when an inconsistency doesn't exist, create

-transgression (real or perceived)

Door-in-the-Face

People are more likely to accept a second, smaller request after denying a large, first request

ex:

1. "would you tutor kids for 15hrs a week?"

2: "would you spend an afternoon with kids?"

Why does door-in-the-face work?

(but note that it doesn't alwayss work)

guilt: they feel bad for turning down the first request

door-in-the-face is more successful when:

-a pro-social issue (guilt kicks in)

-when same individual makes both requests

-only a short delay between the two requests

what is Advertising?

the paid promotion of a product/service

what is Micro-level Advertising?

subtle influences on consumer behavior

what is Macro-level Advertising?

part of capitalist system's promotions of goods to consumers

what is Marketing?

the broader activities/processes which communicate products/services of value to consumers

simple exposure to communications can influence attitudes

REPEAT, REPEAT, REPEAT to develop an association

Mere Exposure

"through repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus, an individual comes to evaluate the stimulus more favorably. According to the theory, all that is necessary is repetition. The more frequently an individual is exposed to a novel object, the more favorably he or she evaluates it"

-the idea that repeated exposure makes the viewer view that message more favorably

→ faster recall

→ more value

4 reasons why Mere Exposure is effective:

1. Easier to process messages if you've seen OR heard them before

2. Attributes higher credibility to messages that are repeatedly received

3. People infer that messages that come to mind quickly are well-liked (either by themselves and by others)

4. Repeated exposure brings a sense of comfort and familiarity

Mere Exposure is a simple, effective technique that forms and reinforces people's attitudes

-it works better to FORM attitude rather than change attitude

-doesn't work well when it's a negative attitude toward something

what is the assumption with Mere Exposure?

People in general have low involvement or low ability to process messages in the current media environment

What is Subliminal Perception?:

the perception of an object w/out being aware that it's perceived

what is Subliminal Advertisement:

includes a brief, specific message that cannot be consciously perceived

The Subliminal Myth

subliminally perceived information can affect judgments

But, evidence is mixed and limited in "real world" (non-lab) context

what are the reasons why subliminal advertising doesn't work

-people have different threshold for conscious awareness

-no guarantee the message will be interpreted in the intended way

-to influence attitudes, messages must get absolute attention

-likely to be lost in the shuffle of other, consciously processed messages

what is Placebo Effect:

an artificial treatment, influences behavior because individuals, assuming it is real, attribute power to the treatment

-related to self-fulfilling prophecies (if you expect something to occur, sometimes it will, not because of the event itself but rather because you altered your thoughts about it, which led to different behavior)