Archaeology of Imperial Rome Test #3

Temple of Venus and Roma

• was at the middle of the imperial cult

• Built by Hadrian in AD 121-135

• It was a full-blown Greek temple

• had a lot of subterranean levels

  • might have been were the awning of the Flavian Amphitheater was kept

• Contained seated colossals of Venus and Roma

  • Roma faced west

  • Venus faced east

Hadrian’s Wall

• The purpose of the wall was to separate the tribes of Britannica so they couldn’t make military alliances

  • The land beyond the wall was still Roman territory

    • They had complete control

      • Demanded troops, peace, and taxes

• Was 80 miles long

Hadrianic Stimulus

• when cities and people would preemptively build construction and beautify their cities

Antoninus

• Hadrian meets him in Bithynia

• was from the upper class and spoke Greek

• When he was 16-17, he and Hadrian began a sexual relationship

  • Hadrian was married

  • This relationship was despised in Roman society

• When he was 19 he drowned in the Nile

• Hadrian forced the senate to deify him

  • was the first such deification to occur

  • Built a city and temples in his honor in the Mediterranean

  • Started a cult to him

    • was very popular

    • Got assimilated with other local cults

Hadrian’s Villa

• Tivoli

• Over 120 hectares

  • as large as a city

• Built it because he didn’t want it to be on the Palatine

  • he wanted to get away from the city

• They were permanent residents who lived on the grounds and maintained them

• was built on three axis’s

Canopus

• Part of Hadrian’s villa

• a long pool surrounded by a colonnade of Egyptian statues

• supposed to represent a town that is connected to Alexandria by a channel

Rocca Bruna

• was a belvedere tower

  • belvedere means “best view”

• was the spot in the villa with the best view

• section of Hadrian’s villa

• had a reinforced dome

• Hadrian might have dined here

Pon Aelius

• the bridge the lead to the entrance of the Mausoleum of Hadrian

Mausoleum of Hadrian

• would have had a mound of earth

• the whole monument was made out of spolia

  • was made with reused masonry from other monuments

  • must have come from a major monument

    • It’s believed that it came from the Circus of Caligula

spolia

• material taken from another monument

Vindolanda

• Roman fort near the south of Hadrian’s Wall

  • Predates the wall

• Had 9 phases of occupation ( c. AD 85-370)

• The site is waterlogged

  • This preserved organic material, such as socks, marching boots, slippers, writing tablets, baby booties, and boxing gloves

• Vindoland tablets

Vindoland Tablets

• 1,700 wooden tablets written on with ink

• found at Vindolanda

• handwritten letters and notes

• most date between AD 90-120

Tablet 291

• part of the Vindoland Tablets

• Claudia Severa to Sulpicia Lepidina

• the oldest writing in Latin from a woman

• AD 97-105

Antoninus Pius

• AD 138-161

• Hadrian’s choice of Antoninus was seen as unexpected

  • was chosen under the condition of making Marcus Aurelius his heir

• Argued for the deification of Hadrian

  • the senators were very agaisnt it

    • gave him the title of Pius because of his fidelity and piety to Hadrian

• His reign was filled with stability

Temple of Hadrian

• construction was over seen by Antoninus Pius

  • AD 145

• was next to the Temple of Matidia

• located on the Campus Martius

Temple of Matidia

• a temple Hadrian dedicated to his mother-in-law

  • Sabina’s mother

• Located on the Campus Martius

• was next to the Temple of Hadrian

Antonine Wall

• built by Antoninus Pius

  • Begun in AD 142

• Located in Britannica

• North of Hadrian’s Wall

• served the same purpose as Hadrian’s Wall

Annia Galeria Faustina

• wife of Antoninus

• AD 100-140

• distant descendant of Trajan

• was of the noble class

• was married to Antoninus before he became emperor

• after she died, Antoninus deified her and never remarried

Column of Antoninus

• The base of the column depicts the apotheosis of Antoninus and Faustina

  • they are being carried up into the heaven’s by the genius of Jupiter

    • the genius is also represented by a snake

  • at the time of their cremation, which was on the Campus Martius, they would undergo apotheosis

  • Also personifications of the Campus Martius and Roma

Temple of Antoninus Pius and Faustina

• located on the Roman Forum

  • on the religious side of the forum

• faces the Regia

• served as a demonstration of the divine status of the Antonine emperors

• was later changed in a church

  • Church of St. Lorenzo in Miranda

• was originally built only for Faustina but was rededicated to add Antoninus Pius

Griffin

• symbol of power

• most powerful animal in the earth and sky

• were seen as protectors of treasure

• depicted on the Frieze of the Temple of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, along with candelabrum and acanthus eaves

consecratio

deification

ustrinum

funeral pyre

• a coin depicting the ustrinum of Faustina shows her pyre had a quadriga on top and a door leading to a chamber that perhaps contained the body

Lucius Verus

• co - emperor from AD 161-169

• son of Lucius Aelius Caesar

• After ascending to the principate, Marcus Aurelius demanded that he be made his co-emperor

  • was a pure co-emporship (although Marcus Aurelius was still the senior)

  • saw him as his brother

Antonine Plague

• begins AD 165

• Lucius Verus and his army brought it back to Rome

Galen

• c. AD 129-200

• court physician of Marcus Aurelius

• was essentially the father of modern medicine

• served as the basis of medicine until the Renaissance

Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius

• The only surviving equestrian statue of a Roman emperor

• he is addressing/speaking

• doesn’t have military attire on

• was a part of a group of statues

  • perhaps enemies kneeling before him

• Maybe a message of peace

• He is sitting on an exotic saddle

  • a Parthian saddle

Monte Testaccio

• An artificial hill made of discarded ancient vessels

• 35m high

• near the Tiber River

amphora

• a vessel

• mostly 1st-3rd cent AD

• used for the transport of olive oil, wine, grain, and garum

garum

• fish sauce

• was kept in amphora

Ostia Antica

• 25km from Rome

• located at the mouth of the Tiber River

• was a major port site

Capitolium

• temple dedicated to the Capitoline triad of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva

• was at the head of the Roman forum in Ostia Antica

• 2 Cent. AD

  • was probably built under Hadrian

• Had a high podium with 21 steps

Portus

• was a new harbor 3km north of Ostia Antica

• was built by Claudius, and expanded by Trajan

• had warehouses all around which held materials

• outside of the port there was a island with a pharos

horrea

• warehouse

• were many of them at Portus

pharos

• lighthouse

Pharos at Portus

• 30-60m high

• contains mosaics and reliefs from Ostia

Cult of Mithras

• mystery religion - 1st cent BC, widespread by 3-4th cent. AD in Rome

• at least a 1,000 years old

• had Persian origins

• worshipped occurred in caves

  • subterranean chambers for worship

• was popular among merchants, soldiers, and high-ranking imperial members

• Had levels

  • when one achieved a new level, they received a new revelation

• 18 Mithraea have been identified in Ostia

Tauroctony

• a depiction of (sculpture or relief) of Mithras killing a bull

• Mithras, kneeling on the bull, holding it by the nostrils, stabbing it in the neck, looking back

• A dog and a snack lick the blood

• a scorpion pinches the bull’s testicles

• Sol (top left) with a crown of sun rays, with a ray shining down on Mithras

• A raven below Sol

• Luna (top right) with crescent moon

Column of Marcus Aurelius

• AD 180

• was a commentarii

  • commemorates his wars against the various German tribes

• There is now a statue of Paul on top of it

• Has a staircase inside

• The relief is deeper

  • was done with a running drill

Rain Miracle

• Part of the relief on the Column of Marcus Aurelius

• Rain god is bringing down a storm and bringing down the enemies of Rome

miracle

• a type of divine interposition

Marcus Aurelius Religious Views

• was stoic and had a belief that was somewhat monotheistic

• believed in Jupiter

• believed that everything and all human destiny is being driven by “the one god” Jupiter, the supreme god

Relief of Triumph of Marcus Aurelius

• AD 176

• Marcus Aurelius riding a quadriga

• has Nike behind him

• Commodus was erased from the relief

  • MA celebrated his triumph with Commodus

    • had chosen him as his successor before his death

      • was his biological son

    • were essentially co-emperors

Commodus

• AD 181-192

• was the biological son of MA

• underwent damnatio memoriae

• After his father’s death, he negotiates a quick peace treaty with the Germans

  • was lopsided and short lived

• Instituted a reign of terror

• was drowned by his wrestling trainer

• the senate passed a damnatio memoriae

Septimius Severus

• AD 193-211

• Military commander

• became princeps after a civil war caused by the assassination of Commodus

• was from North Africa

  • Leptis Magna

• Spoke latin with an accent

• First African-born emperor

Julia Domna

• wife of Septimius Severus

• provided real counsel to her husband

• had own bodyguards and held council

• was from a noble family

  • Emesa, Syria

• had two sons: Caracalla and Geta

  • might have had a special relationship with Geta that Caracalla was jealous of

Parthian Campaigns

• AD 195, AD 197-198

• carried out by Septimius Severus

• were very successful

  • is awarded a triumph and receives a triumphal arch

Arch of Septimius Severus

• AD 203

• SS had a contentious relationship with the senate

  • under SS the principate became much more of a military monarchy

• the arch was located next to the Curia

• Mirrors the Parthian Arch of Augustus

• the last original arch in Rome

• The inscription was changed after Caracalla murdered Geta and declared a damnatio memoriae agaisnt him

attic

• where the inscription is on an arch

• The attic on the Arch of SS had gilded bronze letters that were placed inside the carvings

bayes

• the openings of the arch

Arch of Septimius Severus description

• Had a commentarii of the Parthian campaign and a relief band of the triumphal procession

• depicts Roman soldiers w Parthian prisoners

• Commentarii - Reliefs

  • Liberation of Nisibis

  • Siege of Edessa

  • Siege of Babylonia and Seleucia

  • Siege of Ctesiphon (AD 198)

keystone

• decorative stone located at the apex of an arch

• Arch of Septimius Severus

  • Central Bay

    • Mars

  • Minor Bays

    • 2 female & 2 males

      • the males were Hercules and Dionysus

spandrel

• semi-triangular space found in the upper corner of an arch

• Arch of SS

  • Central Bay

    • Nike with trophies and personifications of the seasons

      • Symbolizes victory throughout the years

  • Minor Bays

    • River gods

Caracalla

• AD 211-217

• was assassinated by a military officer while on campaign

• Built the baths of Caracalla

thermae

• imperial baths

Baths of Caracalla

• were the largest baths that the Romans ever built

• was an act of benefaction

  • wasn’t for the elect but for the common people

• two aqueducts that flowed into the baths

• was also known as the thermae Antoninianae

• wasn’t just a bath complex

  • had a large garden

  • a lot of all-purpose rooms

  • a stadium for horseback riding and racing

• water drained into the Tiber River

apodytherium

• the “lockeroom” in a bathhouse

• were people got undressed

palaestra

• exercise room

  • wrestling, ballgames, weightlifting

caldarium

• hot rooms

  • the temperature was at 100 degrees

    • although different rooms were at different temperatures

tepidarium

• warm rooms

  • used to acclimate to the other temperature rooms

natatio

• pool

• the natatio in the Baths of Caracalla was 164 × 72 ft, 3ft deep

  • was larger than a modern olympic pool

frigidarium

• cold room

  • essentially functioned as a cold plunge

Roman bath culture

• People would show up to the baths together

• Going to the baths was a combination of taking care of one’s hygiene and socializing

  • would go after completing their morning duties

  • would spend time there, ranging from 1-3 hours

• The baths were segregated by gender

  • In the beginning, the facilities were separated

  • Later on, it was probably separated by hours

    • Women in the morning and men at night

basilica

• part of the Baths of Caracalla

• was a place to engage in intellectual pursuits

  • people would have discussions

  • the garden served the same purpose

• had a library with books and scrolls, famous artworks

Hypocaust system

• was in the floors and walls

• hot air circulated underneath the floor and walls

• There were stacks of tiles

  • Steam from a furnace flowed in between the stacked tiles on the floor and the box shaped tiles in the wall

pilae

• tiles

• the stack of tiles would support the floor

Baths of Caracalla substructure

• had streets, storage rooms, watermill, and Mithraeum

bathing order

• Apodyterium

• Tepidarium, Palaestra, or Natatio

• Caldarium

• Tepidarium

• Frigidarium

Elagabalus

• AD 218-222

• family member of Caracalla

• Julia Domna’s nephew

• was young - 14 years old

• served as a caretaker and priest of the god, Elagabal

  • when he became the princeps, he brought the cult of the god Elagabal to Rome

• He reputation has been really disparaged

  • raping vestal virgins, acting as prostitute, married many men and women

• Was seen as a foreigner

• was assassinated along with his mother by the praetorian guard after she chose his cousin Severus Alexander, to be his successor

Severus Alexander

• AD 222-235

• was the last of the Severans

Crisis of the Third Century

• AD 235-285

• 26 emperors in 50 years

  • civil wars

  • lack of control of the armies

• war on two major fronts

  • Parthians in the east

  • Germans in the west

• Political and Economic crisis

  • rampant inflation

  • urban population decline

  • fortifications were constructed - they hadn’t been needed before

• Christianity prospered, as churches helped the poor

• Standards of living decreased

Gordion III

• AD 238-244

• Emperor at age 13

• died in Battle of Mische, near Fallujah, Iraq,

  • was fighting against the Sasanians

    • Sasanians = Persians/Parthians

Philip the Arab

• AD 244-249

• Made a peace treaty to end the war

Trajan Decius

• AD 249-251

• First official Roman persecution of Christianity in Rome in 250

• Libellus

libellus

• a little book that symbolized a person’s dedication to the gods of Rome

Valerian

• AD 253-260

• severe persecution of Christians - AD 257

• was captured by Shapur I and was used as a footstool for years

• may have had liquid gold poured down his throat, or was skinned and stuffed and displayed in the palace

Shapur I

• was the most successful Parthian king

• was essentially the Parthian version of Hadrian

• didn’t entertain the release of Valerian

Aurelian

• AD 270-275

• was a follower of the unconquerable sun god, Sol Invictus

• Aurelian Wall

Aurelian

• 19km

• 381 towers

• incorporated the Castra Praetoria

• Built it relatively quickly

  • used preexisting structures to build the walls

• Preserves the third century

• tells us that he felt that Rome was threatened

Porta Asinaria

• Gate

Porta Pranestina (Porta Maggiore)

• famous gate

• originally built under Claudius for the aqua Claudia

Diocletian

• AD 284-305

• by the time Diocletian became emperor, the principate was now referred to as a dominate

  • a dominate is an absolute military monarchy

• was very clever, had a lot of skills

• his objective was to stabilize the Roman Empire

• established the tetrarchy

• look beyond his own personal interests

tetrarchy

• “the power of four”

• Two Caesars and two Augustus

• established by Diocletian

Tetrarchy

• Divided the empire into two

• Gave Maximian full powers of the emperor

  • Diocletian still had seniority

• Successor was not to be biological, but instead a capable military commander

• East

  • Diocletian (Augustus)

  • Galerius (Caesar)

• West

  • Maximian (Augustus)

  • Constantius (Caesar) - father of Constantine

Dominate

• Diocletian

  • Jovius ( Jupiter’s representative on Earth)

• Maximian

  • Herculis (Hercules’ representative on Earth)

• Diocletian had higher divinity, but they essentially had the same power

Porphyry

• purple stone quarried in Mons Porphyrites

• was found by the Julio-Claudians

• very closely tied to the image of the emperor

• could only be found in one place and was under the control of the emperor

Movement of Capitals

• the tetrarchs establish capitals near the areas of conflict

  • the capital of the empire is moved from Rome to Milan under Maximian

• Diocletian moves his capital to Nicomedia in Byzantium

Diocletian’s Reforms

• administrative reforms

  • divided the Roman empire into smaller administrative units

    • 105 provinces

      • was originally 40

  • increased the tax efficiency of tax collection

• military reforms

  • comitatenses

    • in an emergency, they would gather to form a field army

    • the army became even more effective

• economic reforms

  • attempt to curb inflation

  • Edict of Maximum Prices

comitatenses

• small mobile units

  • in an emergency, they would gather to form a field army

Edict on Maximum Prices

• AD 301'

• Diocletian set a maximum price that basically every item could cost

• it failed, and things moved towards a barter system

Diocletian Decennalia Monument

• AD 303

• located on the Roman Forum

• celebrated 10 years of having the Caesars

• 5 porphyry statues on granite columns fronting the Basilica Julia

  • Jupiter (center) flanked by Tetrarchs

Key Events during Diocletian’s Principate

• AD 303

  • Persecution of Christians

    • Order by Diocletian

      • Soldiers forced to offer sacrifices to the emperor

      • ordered destruction of churches

      • Christians condemned and tortured

  • wasn’t very successful

• AD 305

  • Diocletian and Maximian abdicated on the same day

    • wanted to see the tetrarchy to be successful in his lifetime

  • Retired to his palace at Split

    • saw the demise of the tetrarchy

• AD 311

  • Galerius, on his deathbed, issues the Edict of Toleration

• AD 312

  • Constantine, adherent of Sol Invictus, invades Italy and marches against Maxentius

    • Battle of Milvian Bridge

Edict of Toleration

• AD 311

• was issued by Galerius

• ended the official persecution of Christianity

labarum

• a military flag

Conference of Milan

• AD 313

• meeting between Constantine and Licinius (the Augustus of east and west)

• formed a policy of neutrality and religious freedom

• Christian church was granted legal recognition

Basilica of Maxientus/Constantine

• Built by Maxientus, but was taken over and renamed by Constantine

• was the new headquarters of the urban prefect

• was adjacent from the forum of Vespasian

• consisted of a lot of spoilia

• the colossal of Constantine was placed inside

  • was seated

conservator urbis suae

• “preserver of his city”

• Referred to Maxentius

• was on the Basilica of Maxientus/Constantine

Arch of Constantine

• AD 315

• Continuous frieze of his triumph

• Troops would walk through it

• The style of art was different

  • The new style was less realistic

  • the old style is no longer able to be made

• It was made of spolia and contemporary decorative elements

  • Tondi from Hadrian

  • Attic panels from MA

  • Statues from Trajan

adventus

• arrival

• military context

• depicted on the panel reliefs of MA on the Arch of Constantine

  • his battles against the Germans

  • North Side

    • paired with profectio

profectio

• setiing out

• military context

• depicted on the panel reliefs of MA on the Arch of Constantine

  • his battles against the Germans

  • North Side

    • paired with adventus