APLAC Chapter 3 Notes

argument

A process of reasoned inquiry. A persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion.

Rogerian argument

Based on the assumption that fully understanding an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating. Goal is to reach a conclusion, not destroy your opponents.

claim

An assertion or proposition. States the argument's main idea or position. Differs from a topic or subject because it has to be arguable.

claim of fact

Asserts that something is true or not by drawing the meaning of the words into question. It relies on interpreting and questioning facts.

claim of value

Argues that something is good or bad, wrong or right, desirable or undesirable. Speaker must create criteria and standards to measure their claim against.

claim of policy

Proposes a small, local, or national change, which could be a physical or mental one. The claim begins by defining the problem, explaining why it's a problem, and then explains the change.

first-hand experience

Something you know from personal experience, anecdotes from others, observations, or your general knowledge.

personal experience

Type of first-hand evidence that brings in your own examples and witnessing. Although it cannot stand as universal proof, it is a strong choice for intros and conclusions.

anecdote

Stories about other people that you've heard or been told about. An appeal to pathos.

current events

Local, national, or global evidence gained first hand. A speaker must use many sources to get multiple perspectives and avoid bias.

second-hand evidence

Evidence accessed through research, reading, investigation. This includes factual and historical info, expert opinion, and quantitative data.

historical information

Verifiable facts that a writer knows from research. It provides background and context to current debates and also establishes ethos. Often used to develop a comparison or contrast to a contemporary situation.

expert opinion

citing the viewpoint of an "expert" on a local matter, who does not necessarily need to be widely recognized. However, the speaker must make the expert credible to the audience.

quantitative evidence

Things that can be measured, cited, counted, represented in numbers, such as surveys, statistics, polls, and census information.

classical oration

Five-part argument structure used by classical rhetoricians.

introduction / exordium

Introduces the reader to the subject by getting their attention or challenging them. It establishes the speaker's ethos.

narration / narratio

Provides factual information and background material on the subject and also begins to develop paragraphs or establishes why the subject needs to be addressed.

confirmation / confirmatio

This is the major portion of an argumentative text, as it is the development or proof to make the case. It contains the most specific and concrete ideas, making it an appeal to logos.

refutation / refutatio

Addresses the counterargument and provides a "bridge" between the proof and the conclusion. Appeal to logos.

conclusion / peroratio

One or more paragraphs that close the essay, appeal to pathos, and remind the audience of the previously established ethos.

induction

Logical process where the speaker reasons from particulars to universals. Uses specific cases to draw a conclusion (generalization).

deduction

Logical process where the speaker reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle / universal truth (major premise) and apply it to a specific case (minor premise). Usually demonstrated in form of syllogism.

Toulmin Model

An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments created by the British philosopher Stephen Toulmin. It is a good tool for uncovering the assumptions that underlie arguments.

warrant

Expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience.

assumption

Links the claim to the evidence because if the speaker and the reader don't share same assumption regarding the claim, the evidence cannot persuade them.

backing

Consists of further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks authority.

qualifier

Uses words like "usually," "probably," "maybe," "in most cases," "most likely" to temper the claim and make it less absolute.

reservation

Explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier. Contains the rebuttal

rebuttal

Portion of classical oration that gives voice to possible objections.

syllogism

Logical structure that uses the major and minor premises to reach a necessary conclusion.

closed thesis statement

Statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make. Often uses the word "because" to state the major points. Works well for short essays or timed essays to organize thoughts.

open thesis statement

Does not list all points intended to be covered in the essay, works well in longer essays, because it avoids awkwardness. Instead, it states the overall point.

counterargument thesis statement

Includes a summary of a counterargument qualified by "although" or "but" preceding the writer's opinion. concedes and refutes within the statement. Could lead to an essay that qualifies instead of supports or negates.

logical fallacy

Potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument that often arise from a failure to make a logical claim and support it with sufficient evidence.

ad populum (bandwagon)

Claim that everyone is doing something, so it's a good thing to do.

ad hominem (genetic fallacy)

Switching the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker. This only applies if doing so is irrelevant to the current subject.

red herring

Using evidence that's irrelevant to the claim to avoid the topic of discussion.

circular reasoning

The argument repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence.

hasty generalization

A faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence.

post hoc ergo propter hoc

Incorrect claim that something that came before an event is automatically a cause.

"after which therefore because of which"

faulty analogy

When an analogy compares two things that aren't comparable and instead focus on irrelevant or inconsequential similarities. Often appeals to pathos.

straw man fallacy

Speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea.

either/or fallacy (false dilemma)

Presents two extreme and inaccurate options as the only possible choices.

appeal to false authority

When someone who has no expertise is cited as an authority.