AP Psych Cognition - Module 2.3-2.7

Module 2.3 - Intro to Memory

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memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

The measures of retention (keeping smth in ur memory) are…?

recall, recognition, relearning

recall

the ability to retrieve information learned earlier, but is not in our current conscious awareness.

Example: telling your friend about the time you ate too much food that you threw up

recognition

identifying items previously learned.

Example: seeing a cereal brand in the store and recognizing it from a commercial.

relearning

Learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or at a later time.

Example: traveling to Japan and suddenly remembering the Japanese you learned from Grade 10

how do psychologist describe the human memory system..?

they propose an info processing model which resembles memory to computer operations!!

info processing model

1) encode (Put in) new information
2) retrieve (Pull out) the information
3) store (Organize) the information

Encoding

Encoding is how your brain takes in information and turns it into a memory. first step to remembering new things

Limitations to info-processing model

• human memory is prone to decay and less literal. we forget over time

• humans use parallel processing to process both consciously and unconsciously. we process breathing unconsciously but we think about what to have for lunch consciously

• our memory is influenced emotionally and motivationally. if it’s a happy memory, we will remember it more. or if it is something we need to remember, it is motivationally influenced.

info processing model:

sensory

long term

short term

1) sensory memory: the immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system!

2) short-term memory: memory that holds a few items briefly before the info is stored or forgotten

3) long-term memory: permanent and limitless storehouse in the memory system

working memory

actively processes new sensory info and old memories at the same time to help you think, solve problems, and make decisions.

central executive

A Manager and a Memory Component retrieving info from LTM to help make sense of new information.

coordinates activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Phonological loop

briefly holds auditory info

Visuospatial sketchpad

briefly holds info about objects appearance and location in space

Working memory model

• Your brain has a "boss" (central executive) that chooses what to pay attention to.

• It has two "desktops": one for pictures (visuospatial sketchpad) and one for sounds/words (phonological loop).

• Doing two tasks with the same desktop is hard, but mixing picture and sound tasks works better.
  

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information without absorbing its meaning or connecting it to other info

therefore it is less likely to be stored in LTM

Elaborative rehearsal

when you actively think about the meaning of information and connect it to what you already know to help remember it better.

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

neural basis of memory

when brain cells (neurons) get better at sending signals to each other after being used a lot.

How do we encode memory

Our dual processing mind encodes memory both consciously and unconsciously: explicit memory and implicit memory

Explicit memory (declarative memory)

conscious recollection of facts and experiences from LTM; can “declare.”

Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)

unconscious recollection

Automatic Processing

Automatic processing is when your brain remembers things without trying.

Like remembering where you sat in class, how many times you saw someone, or the order of your day—your brain takes it in without you noticing.

Effortful processing

when you have to focus and try to remember something—like studying for a test or learning new vocabulary. It takes effort and attention.

Sensory Memory

fleeting sensation; we forget after a while

Iconic Memory

very short-term visual memory — like a quick snapshot of what you just saw that lasts for a fraction of a second before fading.

it allows for us to see/recall images in great detail

Echoic Memory

ur n class, daydreaming about the weekend. teacher suddenly asks, "What did I just say?" you can remember the last few words because they echo in your mind for 3 or 4 seconds before they fade away.

Short Term Memory

short-term memory holds about 7 items (7 plus or minus 2) for 30 secs. We usually remember around 6 letters or 5 words.

Chunking ⬛

A effortful processing method. Chunking is organizing items into familiar, manageable units.

helps encode/make and retrieve memories easier

Mnemonic Device

simple trick or memory aid that helps you remember information better—like using acronyms/phrases (BEDMAS)

Spacing effect

Distributed practice (spreading out study sessions) leads to better long-term memory than massed practice (cramming). Cramming helps you learn fast but you forget quickly, while spaced study helps you remember longer.

Testing effect

self-testing

Shallow processing

→ structural processing

→ phonemic processing

Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

Structural processing (appearance).  E.g. Noticing that the word "DOG" is written in capital letters or in bold font.

Phonemic processing – which is when we encode its sound.

Deep processing

→ semantic processing

Encoding semantically, which means encoding based on the meaning; allows for better retention

self-reference effect

we remember better if we refer to ourselves

semantic memory (LTM)

Explicit memory of facts

Recalling a password and holding it in working memory would activate the left frontal lobe.

episodic memory (LTM)

Explicit memory of personally experienced events

activate the right frontal lobe.

acetylcholine neurons

these neurons are in the hippocampus for memories

Memory consolidation

process of stabilizing a memory after it's been formed so it can be stored in long-term memory.

What role do the basal ganglia play in memory formation?

The basal ganglia, controlling movement, help form procedural (implicit) memories like skills—e.g., throwing a ball. They get info from the cortex but don’t send it back, so procedural learning happens without conscious awareness.

infantile amnesia

inability to recall events from early childhood

Retrieval cues

our partner’s name in class can be remembered along with the mood, seating position, etc.

Priming

The unconscious activation of a particular association in long-term implicit memory.
You see a poster of a missing kid and you were unconsciously primed to think an adult-child interaction as kidnapping! The poster is not in mind anymore but it affects my interpretation. Implicit memory of the poster impacts my later response to the situation.

encoding specificity principle

We recall better if the conditions of the situation were the same as when we learned the information. It’s better if we are in the same:

• Environmental space (context-dependent memory)

• Physical state (state-dependent memory)

• Mood (mood-congruent memory)

context-dependent memory

Improved recall of situation or info when contextual cues relating to the environment are the same during encoding and retrieval!

Putting yourself back in the context when you experienced something earlier can prime memory retrieval.

Imagine running into your old classmate in the mall. You recognized them but forgot to figure out who they were. Experiencing something in a new environment is confusing.

state-dependent memory

Improved recall of situation/info when cues relating to physical state are the same during encoding and retrieval.

When people learn something drunk, they don’t remember it when sober but when they are drunk again, they recall better.

Mood-congruent memory

When happy, we recall happy events and therefore see the world as a happy place, prolonging our good mood.

Serial position effect

the position of an item in a list affects how well you remember it.
You remember the first items on a list best (the primacy effect - working memory), you also remember the last items on a list well (recency effect - echoic memory). The middle items of the list are harder to remember.

Superior autobiographical memory

Jill Price has the ability to remember everyday of her life since age 14 with detail. They can summon these memories effortlessly.

Patient H.M.

Henry Molaison had most of the hippocampus removed to stop seizures. He cannot form new conscious memories.

He could remember for 30 secs what the conversation was about before he forgets.

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to form new memories due to injury or illness. can recall his past but not make new memories.

ex: patient H.M.

retrograde amnesia

Another form of forgetting; an inability to retrieve information from their past due to injury or illness. queen of tears 👑

encoding failure

the inability of the brain to create a memory link to new information due to insufficient attention or processing at the time of encoding.

storage decay

the inability to retain info in LTM due to problems in the storing process.

retrieval failure

when info is in LTM but can’t be accessed. info is said to be available but inaccessible. it can’t be accessed because retrieval cues are absent

inadequate retrieval: tip of the tongue

tip of the tongue phenomenon 👅

when you know you know something but can’t quite recall it at the moment—like having a word or name “on the tip of your tongue.”

it’s a universal experience

proactive interference

old info affects new

You changed your email password last week but you still keep typing in the old password.

retroactive interference

the new stuff we learned is fresh on our mind so we can’t recall how to do the older stuff

repression

our mind pushes away thoughts/feelings/memories that make us feel anxious or upset. (not true)

reconsolidation

when a memory is retrieved, then updated and stored again.

Imagine opening a saved document on your computer, making changes, and saving it again.

misinformation effect

when wrong or misleading information changes how we remember an event.

In Loftus’s experiment, people heard different words (“smashed” vs. “hit”) describing a car crash. Those who heard “smashed” guessed higher speeds and later falsely remembered broken glass, even though there was none.

Also, imagining events vividly can create false memories because imagining and seeing use the same brain areas, making imagined events feel real.

source amnesia/misattribution

when you remember information but forget where or how you learned it, leading to false memories.

• You recognize someone but can’t recall where you saw them

method of loci

using location to remember a list of items in order (mind palace)

Retrospective memory

remembering something that already happened.

Retrospective memory makes up the largest part of my LTM: episodic, semantic and procedural

Prospective memory

recalling an intention from the past in order to do something in the future. “Remembering to remember”

Prospective = Promising yourself you’ll do something later!

forgetting curve

recall decreases rapidly at first, then plateaus and forgotten completely