RADI 660

Morbidity

disease rates and impairment

Epidemiology

patterns of occurrence

Manifestations

evidence or effects; signs & symptoms

Syndrome

collection of signs and symptoms occurring together for a particular condition

Mortality

# of deaths from a disease

Nerve Cells

can be stimulated (don’t get replaced)

Muscle cells

can be shorten

Red Blood Cells

contain hemoglobin

Gland cells

can release secretions

Sign

objective

Symptom

subjective

Phagocytosis

cell is engulfing something and pulling it into the cell (solids)

Pinocytosis

the cell is drinking (bringing in fluids)

Atrophy

decrease in size of the cell (tissue is wasting away)

Hypertrophy

increase in size of the cell

Hyperplasia

increase in number of cells (tissue gets larger)

Metaplasia

cell changes from one cell to another (typically seen in esophagus) cells get confused

Dysplasia

cell malfunction (cell doesn’t know what to do)

Anaplasia

cell no longer functions how it normally does (once anaplastic = malignancy)

Necrosis

death of cells (cell gone forever)

Infarction

death of cells and tissue due to lack of oxygen (most common = myocardial infarctions)

Gangrene

dead tissue has died and infection has set into that tissue area (gas producing infection… when people die they must be buried quickly because it is a breeding ground)

changes in metabolism, pH, ATP production, and membrane damage

What are the common causes of cell damage?

Acute inflammation

tissue injury with the release of chemical mediators

vasodilation and increased capillary permeability

What is the vascular response for an acute inflammation?

chemotaxis of leukocytes and neutrophils and lysosomal enzymes

What is the cellular response for acute inflammation?

redness, warmth, swelling, pain, and loss of function

What are the local effects of inflammation?

hyperemia - increased blood flow

What causes redness in inflammation?

hyperemia

What causes warmth in inflammation?

increased interstitial fluid - capillary permeability

What causes swelling in inflammaiton?

pressure on nerves from increased fluid and chemical mediators

What causes pain in inflammation?

swelling interference and lack of nutrients to cells

What causes loss of function in inflammation?

malaise, fatigue, headache, and anorexia

What are the systemic effects of inflammation?

Acute Inflammation

the body’s immediate defense mechanism when tissues are injured. It is RAPID, LOCALIZED, and SELF-LIMITING. typically only lasting days to weeks

Chronic Inflammation

a long-lasting immune response that persists for months or years, often without a clear, resolved trigger. contributes to rheumatoid arthritis, heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and neurodivergent disorders

white blood cells, especially macrophages, clear bacteria and dead tissue through phagocytosis in inflammation — hemostasis is blood clotting

describe wound healing

Active Immunity

make the antibodies

Passive Immunity

receive antibodies

Natural Active Immunity

you were sick and your body made antibodies from that sickness (getting chickenpox when your a child)

Artificial Active Immunity

getting a vaccine that gives you the sickness to build antibodies (getting covid vaccine)

Natural Passive Immunity

getting antibodies from your mom (the placenta in the womb)

Artificial Passive Immunity

getting a vaccine after you have contracted a sickness

Immune Response

the body’s coordinated defense against foreign or harmful substances (antigens) such as bacteria, fungi, parasites, cancer cells, and even harmless environmental triggers like pollen or food proteins.

by depth and total body surface area, as well as cause and location

How are burns classified?

1st degree burn (superficial)

limited to the epidermis; redness, tenderness, no blistering; skin intact, sensation preserved, healing 3-7 days

2nd degree burn (partial thickness)

extends into the dermis but not through it; superficial and deep partial thickness; healing 10-21 days

3rd degree burn (full thickness)

entire dermis destroyed, including hair follicles, sweat glands, nerve endings; white, charred, waxy appearance; painless at the center; healing involves skin grafting

4th degree burn

extends into muscle, tendon, or bone; most severe

infection and sepsis from microbial invasion through damaged skin; fluid and electrolyte imbalances from capillary leakage and sweating; hypovolemic shock from extensive burns; pulmonary complications, etc.

What are the complications of burns?

Transplant Rejection

occurs when the recipient’s immune system recognizes transplanted tissue as foreign and mounts an attack, leading to damage or loss of the graft

Transplant Rejection Prevention Strategies

donor-recipient matching (match human leukocyte antigens); crossmatch testing; induction therapy

decreased blood pressure, airway obstruction, and severe hypoxia

What are the effects of anaphylaxis?

Anaphylaxis

a severe, life-threatening, systemic hypersensitivity reaction

Immunodeficiency

a weakened or absent immune system, making the body less able to fight off infections and other threats

Primary Immunodeficiency Disorder Causes

genetic defects - mutations in DNA that affect immune cell development like B cells, T cells, phagocytes

Secondary Immunodeficiency Disorder Causes

infections (HIV/AIDS), medications (chemotherapy), surgery/organ transplant, chronic diseases (cancer, diabetes), aging (thymus shrinkage and reduced white blood cell activity)

Filtration

moving water and solutes from blood to ISF (hydrostatic pressure)

Diffusion

solutes move from high to low concentrations

Osmosis

moving water from low to high solute concentrations; proteins and electrolytes contribution (pull)

Active Transport

moving solutes with carriers and energy (ATP)

Facilitated Diffusion

involves transport proteins to help molecules that cannot freely pass through the membrane

genetic, age-related, physiological, nutritional, lifestyle, microbiome, chronic disease

What are the factors determining host resistance?

Malignant Tumor

spread (metastasis) and have systemic effects CANCEROUS

Benign Tumor

do not spread and are generally not life threatening EXCEPT for location (brain, heart, vital organs)

Neoplasm

abnormal growth of tissue that forms when cells grow and divide in an unregulated and irreversible way (another term for a tumor)

pain, obstruction, tissue necrosis

What are the local effects of malignant tumors? (site-specific)

paraneoplastic syndromes; weight loss and cachexia; anemia; infections; bleeding

What are the systemic effects of malignant tumors? (whole body)

Hypervolemia

fluid excess - when the body retains more fluid than it eliminates leading to swelling and increased blood volume

Hypovolemia

fluid deficit - fluid loss exceeds intake, causing dehydration and reduced blood volume

heart failure (sodium/water retention), kidney disease, cirrhosis, excessive ADH

What are the causes of fluid excess?

weight gain, hypertension, peripheral edema, cool/pale skin, decreased urine output

What are the signs of fluid excess?

vomiting, diarrhea, hemorrhage, burns, fever, diabetes, diuretic overuse

What are the causes of fluid deficit?

hypotension, tachycardia, poor skin turgor, weight loss and fatigue, oliguria, confusion and restlessness

What are the signs of fluid deficit?

Metabolic Acidosis

too much acid or too little bicarbonate in the blood. it lowers blood pH, rapid/deep breathing, weakness, confusion (severe diarrhea)

Metabolic Alkalosis

too much bicarbonate or too little acid in the blood. it increases blood pH, muscle weakness/cramps, confusion, slowed breathing (prolonged vomiting)

Respiratory Acidosis

too much CO2 retained due to inadequate ventilation. it lowers blood pH, headache, confusion, drowsiness (COPD or respiratory depression)

Respiratory Alkalosis

too much CO2 lost due to excessive/rapid breathing. it increases blood pH, dizziness, tingling, muscle cramps. (hyperventilating from anxiety)

Hyponatremia

low sodium. headache, nausea, confusion, muscle cramps, seizures

Hypernatremia

high sodium. extreme thrist, weakness, confusion, restlessness, seizures

Hypokalemia

low potassium. muscle weakness, cramps, fatigue, constipation, abnormal heart rhythms

Hyperkalemia

high potassium. muscle weakness, numbness/tingling, abnormal heart rhythms, potentially cardiac arrest

Hypocalcemia

low calcium. muscle cramps/spasms, tingling, numbness, seizures, abnormal heart rhythms

Hypercalcemia

high calcium. weakness, fatigue, nausea, constipation, confusion, kidney stones, abnormal heart rhythms

Hypomagnesemia

low magnesium. tremors, muscle cramps/spasms, weakness, abnormal heart rhythms, seizures

Hypermagnesemia

high magnesium. weakness, decreased reflexes, low blood pressure, slow heart rate, respiratory depression

Germinal Stage (weeks 1-2)

fertilization and implantation occur. usually no major physical changes in the mother yet

Embryonic Stage (weeks 3-8)

major organs and body structures begin developing. the mother may experience fatigue, nausea, breast tenderness, and increased urination

Fetal Stage (week 9-birth)

the fetus grows and organs mature. the mother may experience weight gain, abdominal growth, back pain, heartburn, increased urination, and fatigue

this is when the major organs form, making the embryo especially sensitive to harmful substances

What’s so important about the first 8 weeks of fetal development?

Teratogen

any substance or situation that causes developmental abnormality

slower metabolism; decreased muscle mass; decreased bone density; slower tissue repair; reduced organ function

What are the metabolic changes in aging?

interfere with digestive functions, reduces vital capacity, increases pressure on bladder and rectum, changes center of gravity

Pressure of the expanding uterus can what?

skin, muscles, bones, joints, blood vessels, organs

What are the structural changes in aging?

CNS, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, kidney

What are the most vulnerable tissues that cannot regenerate?

delayed healing (reduced rate of mitosis) and less rapid immune responses

Why are infections more common in older people?

higher cumulative exposure to carcinogens

Why is there increased cancer risk in older people?

inactive muscles (loss of strength, endurance, and mass (muscle atrophy)); loss of bone mass from lack of weight-bearing activity and muscle action (reduces osteoblastic activity and osteoclastic activity continues)

Effects of immobility on musculoskeletal system

edema, inadequate subcutaneous tissue in older adults, loss of sensation, mechanical irritation or friction, inadequate personal hygiene, inadequate nutrition, trauma to the skin

Effects of immobility on skin

blood starts to pool in the trunk, increasing venous return. prolonged immobility will reduce venous return and cardiac output causing orthostatic hypotension with short periods of dizziness, fainting, and rapid pulse

Effects of immobility on cardiovascular system

respiration slow and shallow; deep breathing and coughing is more difficult; increased secretions in the lungs (pneumonia and atelectasis); drugs like sedatives and analgesics

Effects of immobility on respiratory system