Studied by 50 people
Cline
A gradual change in some phenotypic characteristics from one population to the next
how related are homo sapiens to each other?
Incredibly related (99.9%) to every other human on the planet due to continuous gene flow.
First trimester
Fertilized ovum multiples into millions of cells eventual emergence of tissue types, organs and physiological systems. Most vulnerable environmental period of life.
Second Trimester
Fetus mostly grows longer.
Third Trimester
Rapid weight growth and organ development
Teratogens
agents that can inflict disruption insults, and deformities during development.
Veratrum californicum
produces an anti-herbivory chemical that blocks Shh signaling
SHH
also known as sonic hedgehog syndrome it divides optic field by suppressing Pax6 expression in the center of the neural tube.
Growth velocity
each of the postnatal periods has a different growth velocity
Human dental formula
2 incisors -1 canine -2 molars -3 premolars
Motor skills development
walking and running generally develop in first two years.
Cognitive abilities early development
rapid growth rate of the brain
when does permanent dentition begin?
6 years old
Deciduous
baby teeth
Diphyodont
two sets of teeth in our lives.
Dental Attrition
Wear and tear on teeth
Brain Development
Fetal brain is relatively smooth. By 40 weeks, you develop the wrinkles you will have for the rest of your life.
when has the human brain reached full size and nearly complete development
by 6 years old
when are the major regions of the brain differentiated but not fully developed
11 weeks
Ape brain development
flatlines after age 2
Human Brain Development
Humans continue absolute growth during childhood
Rhesus Monkey brain maturity by size at birth
48-68% of adult size
Chimpanzee brain maturity by size at birth
36-46% of adult size
Human brain maturity by size at birth
25-29%
How does poor sanitation in emerging cities impact height?
poor sanitation causes average heights to decrease.
Epiphysis
Ends of bones, separate growth. Common in long bones.
Diaphysis
Shaft or central portion of the (long) bone
Growth plate
Areas of growth between bones. Filled with cartilage then eventually filled with bone
do bones have veins inside of them?
Yes, bones are very vascular and cartilage is relatively avascular
what happens when exposed to low atmosphere pressure
Reduces the number of oxygen molecules, hypoxia becomes an issue
Hypoxia
When body tissues receive insufficient amounts of oxygen.
affects of hypoxia
leads to motion sickness, headaches, nausea, loss of appetite, fatigue, and breathlessness during physical activity; 8,000 ft during rest). (severity and risks increase as a person moves higher)
High altitude and bone growth
can impede normal bone growth as it is strongly affected by the environment (nutrition -[not much grows on mountains] and general health.)
Peruvian Andes
-Larger chest cavities than low altitude people
- Restricted growth so generally shorter
- Larger lungs and better lung function
Tibetan women
Selection: Alleles for high oxygen saturation in their hemoglobin
- More oxygen = better survival = better reproduction = Natural selection
- Much more resilient to hypoxic impacts
Regarding Growth and Development
Prenatal and postnatal males appear to be more sensitive to environmental insult than females
Bergmann's Rule
Principle that animal size is often heat-related.
- Animals adapted to hot environments tend to have less body mass.
- Animals adapted to cold environments tend to have greater body mass
endotherms
Warm-blooded animals. we produce internal heat simply by living
Hyperthermia
Body temp is higher than normal range, loss of function and death.
Vasodilation
Increase blood vessel diameter near the body's surface. This is a way of getting more blood to the surface so it can cool before going back to the core of the body.
Sweating
a physiological response to release heat. Humans have an abundance of eccrine glands to produce sweat.
Allen's Rule
Principle that some animal's limb lengths are heat related.
- arms/legs tend to be longer in hot environments
- arms/legs tend to be shorter in cold environments
Climate Adaptation
Vasoconstriction
Shivering
Elevated BMR
Clothing and shelter
Vasoconstriction
Decrease blood vessel diameter. This increases blood flow back to the core of the body to produce more heat.
where is darker skin seen?
nearer to the equator and in high elevations
where is lighter skin seen?
away form the equator and in lower elevations
What do melanocytes produce
a pigment called melanin
Eumelanin
Browns to black skin tone, variations in this largely dictate skin/hair pigmentation/coloration
Pheomelanin
Pink to red hues (lips, nipples, hair, etc.)
Neuromelanin
Found in brain. Function unresolved.
Folate
Prevents a large number of neural tube defects (NTD). Important in spermatogenesis, reduce heart defects in fetus, reduce stroke risk, DNA synthesis and repair, etc.
Vitamin D
a hormone that increases calcium absorption of the small intestine and thus makes calcium available for building bones.
Drawbacks for dark skin away from equator
not enough vitamin D synthesis because low light conditions and so much melanin that synthesis becomes difficult
Modern Treatment is Vitamin D supplementation
Drawbacks or light skin near the equator
higher skin cancer risk due to especially high UV. Lose too much folate because skin is not dark enough to protect it.
modern Treatment: Sunscreen/covered skin; Folate supplementation.
Primates
a group of closely related and arboreally adapted mammals that live largely in the tropics. they display remarkable dietary plasticity and parental investment
Strepsirhines
Lemurs, lorises, galagos, pottos.
- They have a post-orbital bar
- Many are nocturnal and some diurnal
- Some have nail and tooth adaptations for grooming
- Mostly see in black and white with the tapetum lucidum in the eye (allows for night vision)
- retain strong olfaction
Postorbital septum, bar, and process
P.O. Septum: Bony cup, fully closed
P.O. Bar: Partially closed
P.O Process: Incomplete closure
Lemurs
Found in Madagascar
21% of all primate Genera
Most are highly social
Dominant female
Diet of leaves and fruits
Some diurnal, some nocturnal
Lorises
Found in SE Asia, Sri Lanka, Africa
Generally nocturnal
Lack external tail
Primarily insectivores
Galagos
- Found in Africa (large distribution)
- Nocturnal
- Primarily insectivorous... but also fruit and small animals
- Common social group: female and offspring
- Excellent jumpers
Pottos
Found in West/Central Africa
Nocturnal
Nearly exclusively arboreal
Diet=fruit, gums, insects
Haplorhines
Includes NWM, OWM, Apes, and Humans
- Larger brains
- Greater sexual dimorphism
- Fewer teeth
- Orbit = full bony septum aka "Post-orbtial septum"
- Fully convergent eyes
- Many have color vision, Most diurnal
- lack a tapetum lucidum in the eye.
Dentition of primates
Most Strepsirhhines - 2.1.3.3
NWM: 2.1.3.3
OWM, Apes, and Humans: 2.1.2.3
Primitive Trait
Trait shared due to its presence in a common ancestor
Derived Trait
Derived Trait
Platyrrhines aka New World Monkeys
- Found in the Americas (central and south)
- Some have prehensile tails
- 2.1.3.3 or 2.1.3.2. dental formula. 1 more premolar than we have
- Folivory (leaf diet), frugivory (fruit diet), and insectivory.
Cercopithecoids: Old World Monkeys
- Found across the "old world"
- Approx. 22+ Genera 132+ species
- Colobines ("leaf eating"*, arboreal*)
- Colobus, Langurs, Proboscis
- "Sacculated Stomachs", reduced or absent thumbs.
- Cercopithecines (cheek pouch, monkeys, arboreal and terrestrial)
- Mandrills, baboons, vervets, etc.
- "Ischial Callosities"
- 2.1.2.3 dental formula
Catarrhines are divided into 2 superfamilies
Cercopithecoids, Hominoids
Cheek pouches
found in Cercopithecines. They are hypothesized to function to
Reduce Competition with members of their own species
Predator Risk Avoidance
Storing Food, Resource Distribution.
The tapetum lucidum
an extra layer of tissue in the eyes of some vertebrates. Functions to provide the light-sensitive retinal cells with a second opportunity for photon-photoreceptor stimulation, thereby enhancing visual sensitivity at low light levels. (causes eye shine in photos)
Two types of primate teeth
Y-5 (Humans, Orangutans, Chimpanzee, Gibbons), Bilophodont (Colobus Monkey)
Brachiation
A form of locomotion where an animal can fling themselves from tree limb to tree limb. Gibbons and Siamangs have long arms and curved fingers that help them do this.
which ape species are unable to brachiate
the larger apes such as chimpanzees, orangutans, and gorillas
how has knuckle walking evolved in the ape species
each group appears to have evolved knuckle walking independently and that each has a slightly different form of locomotion.
Chimpanzees
- Range: Largest distribution range of all modern (extant) apes
- Shares - 98-99% DNA with chimps
- Terrestrial Quadrupedalism: Knuckle-walking
- Habitat: Tropical, forest savanna, montane forest
Bonobos
Also called Pygmy Chimpanzees, they can not be distinguished from common apes by size alone.
Gorillas
Largest apes, We share - 98% DNA with gorillas. Capable suspensory locomotion but large size dictates terrestrial use. Knuckle-walking
Habitat: Tropical forests, volcanic mountains.
notable skeletal structure of a primate
- Mobile joints, Clavicles
- Opposable Thumbs: can touch each of the four fingertips. Enables grasping
- Hands and feet have dexterity: Arboreal adaptation
Especially apes and humans: Precision and power grips
Non-human primate vs human toes
Non-human primates = Abducted big toe (hallux)
Human = Adducted big toe (hallux)
Incisors
Cutting, shearing food. *Flat, shovel-like
Canines
Pierce, tear food *cuspid (one cusp/point), pointed
Premolars
tear and crush *bicuspid (two cusps)
Molars
Chew, crush, grind *four cusps
CP3 complex
Apes have enlarged canines, with an upper canine-lower premolar sectorial (cutting, honing) complex
which species have fingerprints (dermatogylphs)
all species of primates and koalas (for some reason)
what gives primates advanced vision?
-forward-facing eyes
- binocular vision aids in depth perception
- Color vision in Apes, humans, OWM
Eye orbits in primates
Primates trend toward more convergent orbits while other animals tend to trend toward divergent orbits
how does primate parenting differ from other animals parenting?
Increased Parental Investment
Primates Tactile sense
Enhanced touch with dermal ridges for better gripping and sensitivity.
What are the chances of having identical finger prints to someone else?
1 in 64 million
Primate reduction of Olfaction
Primates have undergone selection for increased vision but olfactory reduction.
- Olfactory bulb reduced
- Occipital lobe increased
Human conchae: vs Otter and dog turbinate network
Human conchae: Comparatively less surface area. Otter and Dog turbinate network: Complex, high surface area.
Sensory trends in primates
- Positive: selectoin for greater visual acuity
- Negative: selection for olfaction
- Positive: Selection for greater tactile acuity (enhanced sense of touch)
- Hearing: generally in line with other mammals per size group
Primate Dental Formulae
Tarsiers: 2.1.3.3
Lemurs: 2.1.3.3
Lorises : 2.1.3.3
New World Monkeys: 2.1.3.2 or 2.1.3.3
Old World Monkeys: 2.1.2.3
Apes and Humans: 2.1.2.3
Homodont
Same tooth type
Heterodont
Different Types of Teeth
True: Incisors, Canines, Premolars, Molars
Toothcomb Adaptation
Canine has become an "Incisiform"
Ethnography
A scientific description of the customs of individuals and cultures
Jane Goodall
First person to immerse into chimpanzee society in Tazmania. first to discover tool use in chimpanzees and observe the "Four Year War" among them
Dian Fossey
Rwanda - Mountain Gorillas
- Gorilla social structure
- Practice of infanticide amongst gorillas
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