PSYASS 2 - 2 Historical, Cultural, and Legal/Ethical Considerations

China

where the first tests and testing programs were developed at as early as 2200 BCE as a means of selecting people for government jobs

Ancient Greco-Roman

these writings attempted to categorize people in terms of personality types

Francis Galton

half cousin of Darwin who devise a number of measures for psychological variables

Wilhelm Max Wundt

he started the first experimental psychology laboratory and measured variables such as reaction time, perception, and attention span in Germany

James McKeen Cattell

inspired by his interaction with Galton, coined the term mental test in 1890, and was responsible for introducing mental testing in America

Twentieth (20th) Century (3)

• The measurement of intelligence

• The measurement of personality

• The academic and applied traditions

The measurement of intelligence

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon published a 30-item “measuring scale of intelligence“ designed to help identify Paris schoolchildren with intellectual disability

The measurement of personality

The Personal Data Sheet developed by Robert S. Woodworth was used for the World War I recruits to screen their general adjustment.

self-report

refers to a process whereby assessees themselves supply assessment-related information by responding to questions, keeping a diary, or self-monitoring thoughts or behaviors

projective test

an individual is assumed to “project“ onto some ambiguous stimulus his or her own unique needs, fears, hopes, and motivation

The academic and applied traditions

In the tradition of Galton, Wundt, and other scholars, researchers at universities worldwide use assessment tools to help advance knowledge and understanding of human and animal behavior. Yet there is also an applied tradition, one that dates at least back to ancient China and the examinations developed there to help select applicants for various positions based on merit.

Culture

“the socially transmitted behavior patterns, beliefs, and products of work of a particular population, community, or group of people“ (Cohen, 1994)

culture-specific tests

tests designed for use with people from one culture but not from another

Some Issues Regarding Culture and Assessment (3)

• Verbal communication

• Nonverbal communication and behavior

• Standards of evaluation

Verbal communication

language, the means by which information is communicated, is a key yet sometimes overlooked variable in the assessment process; most obviously, the examiner and the examinee must speak the same language; this is necessary not only for the assessment to proceed but also for the assessor’s conclusions regarding the assessment to be reasonably accurate

Nonverbal communication and behavior

facial expressions, finger and hand signs, and shifts in one’s position in space may all convey messages; the messages conveyed by such body language may be different from culture to culture

psychoanalysis

a theory of personality and psychological treatment developed by Sigmund Freud, symbolic significance is assigned to many nonverbal acts

Standards of evaluation

judgments related to certain psychological traits can also be culturally relative; for example, whether specific patterns of behavior are considered to be male- or female-appropriate will depend on the prevailing societal standards regarding masculinity and femininity

individualist culture

typically associated with the dominant culture in countries such as the United states and Great Britain; characterized by value being placed on traits such as self-reliance, autonomy, independence, uniqueness, and competitiveness

collectivist culture

typically associated with the dominant culture in many countries throughout Asia, Latin America and Africa; value is placed on traits such as conformity, cooperation, interdependence, and striving toward group goals

affirmative action

refers to voluntary and mandatory efforts undertaken by federal, state, and local governments, private employers, and schools to combat discrimination and to promote equal opportunity for all in education and employment

psychology, tests, and public policy

tests and other tools of assessment are portrayed as instruments that can have a momentous and immediate impact on one’s life; tests may be perceived by the everyday person as tools used to deny people things they very much want or need

Laws

rules that individuals must obey for the good of the society as a whole—or rules thought to be for the good of society as a whole

ethics

body of principles of right, proper, or good conduct

code of professional ethics

recognized and accepted members of a profession, it defines the standard of care expected of members of that profession

standard of care

the level at which the average, reasonable, and prudent professional would provide diagnostic or therapeutic services under the same or similar conditions

Leigslation

minimum competency testing programs

formal testing programs designed to be used in decisions regarding various aspects of student’s education

truth-in-testing legislation

passed at the state level beginning in the 1980s; the primary objective of these laws was to give testtakers a way to learn the criteria by which they are being judged

quota system

a selection procedure whereby a fixed number or percentage of applicants from certain backgrounds were selected

discrimination

may be defined as the practice of making distinctions in hiring, promotion, or other selection decisions that tend to systematically favor members of a majority group regardless of actual qualifications for positions

reverse discrimination

may be defined as the practice of making distinctions in hiring, promotion, or other selection decisions that systematically tend to favor members of a minority group regardless of actual qualifications for positions

disparate treatment

refers to the consequence of an employer’s hiring or promotion practice that was intentionally devised to yield some discriminatory result or outcome

disparate impact

refers to the consequence of an employer’s hiring or promotion practice that unintentionally resulted in a discriminatory result or outcome

litigation

the court-mediated resolution of legal matters of a civil, criminal or administrative nature; can impact our daily lives

Test-user qualifications

APA Committee on Ethical Standards for Psychology published a report called Ethical Standards for the Distribution of Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Aids

Three levels of tests

• Level A

• Level B

• Level C

Level A

tests or aids can adequately be administered, scored, and interpreted with the aid of the manual and a general orientation to the kind of institution or organization in which one is working (for instance, achievement or proficiency tests)

Level B

tests or aids that require some technological knowledge of test construction and use of supporting psychological and educational fields such as statistics, individual differences, psychology of adjustment, personnel psychology, and guidance (e.g., aptitude tests and adjustment inventories applicable to normal populations)

Level C

tests or aids that require substantial understanding of testing and supporting psychological fields together with supervised experience in the use of these devices (for instance, projective tests, individual mental tests)

Testing people with disabilities

challenges analogous to those concerning testtakers from linguistic and cultural minorities are present when testing people with disabling conditions; these challenges may include (1) transforming the test into a form that can be taken by the testtaker, (2) transforming the responses of the testtaker so that they are scorable and (3) meaningfully interpreting the test data

Computerized test administration, scoring and interpretation (CAPA)

has become more the norm than the exception; an ever-growing number of psychological tests can be purchased on disc or administered and scored online

Some major issues with regard to CAPA (4)

• Access to test administration, scoring, and interpretation software

• Comparability of pencil-and-paper and computerized versions of tests

• The value of computerized test interpretations

• Unprofessional, unregulated “psychological testing“ online

Access to test administration, scoring, and interpretation software

Despite purchase restrictions on software and technological safeguards to guard against unauthorized copying, software may still be copied. Unlike test kits, which may contain manipulatable objects, manuals, and other tangible items, a computer-administered test may be easily copied and duplicated.

Comparability of pencil-and-paper and computerized versions of tests

Many tests once available only in a paper-and-pencil format are now available in computerized form as well. In many instances the comparability of the traditional and the computerized forms of the test has not been researched or has only insufficiently been researched.

The value of computerized test interpretations

Many tests available for computerized administration also come with computerized scoring and interpretation procedures. Thousands of words are spewed out every day in the form of test interpretation results, but the value of these words in many cases is questionable.

Unprofessional, unregulated “psychological testing” online

A growing number of Internet sites purport to provide, usually for a fee, online psychological tests. Yet the vast majority of the tests offered would not meet a psychologist’s standards. Assessment professionals wonder about the long-term effect of these largely unprofessional and unregulated “psychological testing” sites.

The Rights of Testtakers (4)

• The right of informed consent

• The right to be informed of test findings

• The right to privacy and confidentiality

• The right to the least stigmatizing label

The right of informed consent

Testtakers have a right to know why they are being evaluated, how the test data will be used, and what (if any) information will be released to whom.

informed consent

With full knowledge of such information, testtakers give their ________ _______ to be tested. The disclosure of the information needed for consent must, of course, be in language the testtaker can understand.

The right to be informed of test findings

Because of the possibility of untoward consequences of providing individuals with information about themselves—ability, lack of ability, personality, values—the communication of results of a psychological test is a most important part of the evaluation process.

The right to privacy and confidentiality

The concept of the privacy right “recognizes the freedom of the individual to pick and choose for himself the time, circumstances, and particularly the extent to which he wishes to share or withhold from others his attitudes, beliefs, behavior, and opinions”

privacy right

The concept of the _______ _____ “recognizes the freedom of the individual to pick and choose for himself the time, circumstances, and particularly the extent to which he wishes to share or withhold from others his attitudes, beliefs, behavior, and opinions”

privilege information

The information withheld in such a manner is termed privileged; it is information that is protected by law from disclosure in a legal proceeding.

confidentiality

may be distinguished from privilege in that, whereas “confidentiality concerns matters of communication outside the courtroom, privilege protects clients from disclosure in judicial proceedings“

The right to the least stigmatizing label

The Standards advise that the least stigmatizing labels should always be assigned when reporting test results.