CHAPTER 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY

Chemistry

It is the basis for how the body transforms and uses energy and for how cells use molecules such as carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Matter

is the “stuff” of the universe. It is anything that occupies space and has mass.

Weight

It is a measure of gravity pulling on mass.

Solid, Liquid, and Gas

Matter exists in what states?

Physical changes

It does not alter the basic nature of a substance. Ex. ice melting, food cut

Chemical Changes

Do alter the composition of the substance—often substantially. Ex. fermenting grapes, digestion

Energy

It has no mass and does not take up space.

Kinetic Energy

energy is doing work

Potential Energy

energy is inactive or stored

Chemical Energy, Electrical Energy, Mechanical Energy, and Radiant Energy

What are the forms of energy?

Chemical energy.

is a form of energy that is stored in the bonds of chemical substances. when bonds are broken, stored energy is converted to kinetic

Electrical Energy

a form of enrgy that results from the movement of charged particles

Mechanical Energy

is a form of energy directly involved in moving matter.

Radiant energy

travels in waves, the energy of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Elements

All matter is composed of a limited number of substances called _________, unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler suibstances by ordinary chemical methods.

118, 92

So far, __ elements have been identified with certainty. __ occur in nature; the rest are made artificially in accelerator devices.

96% of the weight of the human body

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up about __% of the weight of the human body

atomic symbol

we designate each element by an _________.

incapable of being divided

The word atom comes from the greek word __________.

Planetary model

The ______ model portrays the atom as a miniature solar system.

Orbital model

This model depicts the general location of electrons outside the nucleus as a haze of negative charge referred to as the electron cloud.

outnumber

When the atom is large, then the neutrons ________ the protons.

Atomic number

Each element is given a number, that is equal to the number of protons its atoms contain.

Atomic Mass Number

It is the sum of the masses of all the protons and neutrons contained in its nucleus

Top left of the symbol (superscript of the atomic symbol)

Where is the atomic mass number read?

Isotopes

These have the same number of protons and electrons but vary in the number of neutrons they contain.

Yes

Are the chemical reactivities of isotopes of the same element the same?

atomic weight

Most abundant isotope is the atomic _____ of an element.

Radioisotopes

Are heavier isotopes of certain atoms that are unstable and tend to release energy in order to become more stable.

Radioactivity

the process of spontaneous atomic decay called __________, can be compared to a tiny sustained explosion.

least penetrating power, most.

All types of radioactive decay involve the ejection of particles (alpha or beta particles) or electromagnetic energy (gamma rays) from the atom’s nucleus and are damaging to living cells. Emission of alpha particles has the _________________________, gamma radaition has the _____.

Molecules

When two or more atoms of the same element are combined chemically, ______ are formed.

Compound

When two or more diffferent atoms bind together to form a molecule, it is called a __________.

Chemical Reactions

Occur whenever the atoms combine with or dissociate from other atoms. When atoms unite chemically, chemical bonds are formed.

Chemical bond

It is not an actual physical structure, instead, it is an energy relationship that involves interactions between the electrons of the reacting atoms.

Electron shells or energy levels

The orbits, or generally fixed regions of space that electrons occupy around the nucleus are called _________.

7

Maximum number of electron shells in any atom

Valence shell electrons

These electrons determine the chemical behavior of atoms.

Ionic Bonds

Bonds that form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another

Ions

Atoms that gains or loses electrons are called what/

Anions

When an atom gains an electron

Cations

When atoms loses an electron

Complete

Inert is similar to?

Covalent bonds

Electrons are shared in a way that each atom is able to fill its valence shell at least part of the time.

co = with, valent = having power

In covalent, co and valent means what?

nonpolar covalent molecules

Electrons that are shared equally between the atoms of a molecule are called ____________.

Polar molecules

Electrons are shared unequally, with two charged poles

Hydrogen bonds

These bonds are important intramolecular bonds, that is, they help to bind different parts of the same molecule together into a special three-dimensional shape. Also helps maintain the structure of both protein molecules and DNA.

1. Synthesis Reactions

2. Decomposition Reactions

3. Exchange Reactions

What are the THREE PATERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Synthesis reactions

A reaction that occurs when two or more atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecule. Ex: A + B = AB. Always involve bond formation. Are energy-storing reactions. Underlie all anabolic (building) activities that occur in body cells. The formation of a protein molecule is a ______ reaction.

Decomposition Reactions

Occur when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules, atoms, or ions: AB yields A + B. Bonds are always broken, chemical energy is released. Underlie all catabolic (destructive) processes that occur in body cells. Ex. digestion of foods and the breakdown of glycogen, when the blood sugar starts to decline.

Exchange reactions

A reaction that involves simultaneous synthesis and decomposition reactions, bonds that are both made and broken. A switch is made between molecule parts, and different molecules are made. AB + C yields AC + B and AB + CD yields AD + CB. Ex. includes ATP transfers its terminal phosphate group to glucose to form glucose-phosphate.

chemical equilibrium

when a reversible reaction has an equal length of arrow, then it is at _____________.

What are the factors increasing the rate of chemical reactions?

Temperature, concentration of reacting particles, particle size, and presence of catalysts. (TCPP)

Temperature

The kinetic energy of the molecules, which in turn move more rapidly and collide more forcefully.

Concentration of reacting particles

the number of collisions because reacting particles are crowded together

particle size

smaller particles have more kinetic energy and move faster than larger ones, hence they take part in more collisions.

presence of catalysts

the amount of energy the molecules need to interact by holding the reactants in the proper positions to interact.

The presence or absence of carbon (except carbon dioxide gas and carbon monoxide)

How can you determine if a chemical is organic or inorganic?

Inorganic compounds

These compounds lack carbon and tend to be small, simple molecules. Ex. water, salts, and many (not all) acids and bases.

Organic compounds

These contain carbon. Some important examples in the body are: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Fairly (or very) large covalent molecules.

Water

It is the most abundant inorganic compound in the body. About two-thirds of our body weight.

HPCC - High heat capacity, Polarity/solvent properties, chemical reactivity, and cushioning.

What are the properties that make water vital?

High heat capacity

A property of water that absorbs and releases large amounts of heat before its temperature changes. It prevents the sudden changes of body temperature that might otherwise result from intense sun exposure, chilling winter winds, or internal events (ex. vigorous muscle activity) that liberate large amounts of heat.

Polarity/solvent properties

A property of water that makes it a “universal solvent”. Molecules cannot react chemically unless they are in solution, so all chemical reactions that occur in the body depend on ______.

solution, suspension

In a mixture, you call it a solution when the resulting solute particles are exceedingly tiny. __________ on the other hand if the solute particles are fairly large.

colloids

Translucent mixtures with solute particles of intermediate size are called _________.

Synovial fluids

These “oils” the ends of the bones as they move within joint cavities.

Cushioning

A property of water that serves a protective function. In cerebrospinal fluid, water forms a cushion around the brain that helps to protect it from physical trauma. Amniotic fluid, surrounds a developing fetus within the mother’s body, protecting the fetus.

Salt

It is an ionic compound containing cations other than the hydrogen ion (H⁺) and anions other than the hydroxide ion (OH^-).

those that containing calcium and phosphorus

Most plentiful salts in the body, found chiefly in bones and teeth.

Dissociation

salts dissolving in body fluids is called?

sodium and potassium

These salts are essential for nerve impulses.

Iron

This element is present in hemoglobin, that transports oxygen within red blood cells..

electrolytes

Because ions are charged particles, all ions are _______—substances that conduct an electrical current in solution. When the balance of this is severely disturbed, virtually nothing in the body works.

electrolytes

Like salts, acids and bases are also __________.

Acids, acid rain

• have a sour taste

• can dissolve many metals, or burn a hole in a rug

• can have a devastating effect, damage to sea life, trees, and famous historical monuments caused by the vinegar-like _______.

• substance that releases hydrogen ions (H⁺)

• proton (H⁺) donors (influences the acidity of body fluids)

strong acids

Acids that ionize completely and liberate all their protons are called?

weak acids

Acids that do not ionize completely are called?

Bases, weak base

• have a bitter taste

• releases hydroxide ions

• slippery

• proton acceptors

• hydroxides are common examples of inorganic bases

• bicarbonate ion is considered to be a _______.

strong base

A base that contains an OH^- is considered to be a _________.

water and salt, a neutralization reaction

When acids and bases are mixed, they react each other (in an exchange reaction) to form what? What is this reaction called?

pH

The relative concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions in various body fluids is measured in concentration units called?

pH scale

The _________, which was devised in 1909 by a Danish biochemist (and part-time beer brewer) named Sorensen, is based on the number of protons in a solution.

YES

Remember how the pH scale works, if you have a pH of 6, then it has 10 times as many hydrogen ions as a solution with a pH of 7.

Buffers

Acid-base balance is carefully regulated by the kidneys, lungs, and a number of chemicals called ______. Weak acids and bases act to maintain pH stability by taking up excess hydrogen or hydroxide ions.

Dehydration synthesis

Monomers are joined by removal of OH from one monomer and removal of H from the other at the site of bond formation (water as byproduct). Monomer 1-OH + HO-Monomer 2 yields Monomer-O-Monomer, are linked by covalent bond. OUTPUT OF WATER.

Hydrolysis

A bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule, adding OH to one monomer and H to the other. Monomer-O-Monomer yields Monomer 1-OH + HO-Monomer 2. INPUT OF WATER.

dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

Biological molecules are formed by ___________ and broken down by ___________.

7.35-7.45

dangerously low levels

What is the normal blood pH range? When blood pH begins to reach the acid level, oxygen in blood decreases rapidly to ____________________________.

Polymers

Are chainlike molecules made of many similar or repeating units (monomers, which are joined together by dehydration synthesis.

Each time a monomer is added to the growing polymer chain.

Dehydration synthesis typically occurs when?

Carbohydrates

• These include sugars and starches, contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. With slight variations, hydrogen and oxygen atoms appear in the same ratio as in water; that is, two hydrogen atoms to one oxygen atom.

• Provide ready, easily used source of fuel for cells

• When it is oxidized, it is broken down into carbon dioxide and water.

• Some of it is trapped in bonds of ATP (energy currency)

• If not yet used, these are converted to glycogen or fat and stored.

• Small amounts are used for structural purposes and represent 1-2% of cell mass.

hydrated carbon

carbohydrate means?

monosaccharides

building blocks of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides

• means one (mono) sugar (saccharide), and thus means simple sugars.

• single-chain or ring-like structures containing from three to seven carbon atoms.

• most important examples in the body are glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, and deoxyribose.

Glucose

means blood sugar, is the universal cellular fuel

Fructose and galactose

These sugars are converted to glucose for use by body cells.

Ribose and deoxyribose

These sugars form part of the structure of nucleic acids, another group of organic molecules responsible for genetic information.

Disaccharides

• or double sugars, are formed when two simple sugars are joined by dehydration synthesis

• Important examples of this are sucrose (glucose-fructose), a cane sugar; lactose (glucose-galactose), found in milk; and maltose (glucose-glucose) or malt sugar.

• They must be broken down to their monosaccharides units to be absorbed from the digestive tract into the blood; by hydrolysis.