Memory and Learning MCAT

Learning

The acquisition of new knowledge or skills

Encoding

The process the brain uses to transfer new sensory information into memory

Automatic Processing

Information that is processed into memory without any effort (remembering landmarks in unfamiliar place)

Controlled Processing

Information that takes more effort to create memories (studying). Controlled eventually becomes automatic

Visual Encoding

Visualize new information to be stored in memory. Weakest form of encoding

Acoustic Encoding

Concentrate and memorize the way something sounds

Semantic Encoding

Put new information into the context of information we already have committed to memory. Strongest form of encoding

Self-Reference Effect

The human tendency to most readily recall information that pertains directly to our lives and our selves

Mnemonic

A device/technique that helps encode information to memory

Maintenance Rehearsal

A type of mnemonic, repeating a phrase over and over until you've memorized it

3 Types of Mnemonics

Maintenance Rehearsal, Chunking, Hierarchies

Chunking

A type of mnemonic, a person groups information into separate chunks (phone number memorization)

Hierarchies of Information

A type of mnemonic, grouping information to ordered groups

Dual Coding Hypothesis

Theory that it is easier to memorize words that are paired with a specific image than to memorize either an individual word or image

Depth of Processing

An important factor in how likely information is to be encoded into memory, the deeper the processing of a memory the more likely we are to remember it

Method of Loci

Associated with dual coding hypothesis, a person associates an item to be memorized at points along a memorized route (analogy; organ system order is like walking around house)

The Four Memories

Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, Working Memory, Long-Term Memory

Sensory Memory

Initial recording of encoded sensory information, and is the most fleeting form of memory storage. Gone in one second unless further attended to.

Two Types of Sensory Memory

Iconic Memory and Echoic Memory

Iconic Memory

Type of sensory memory, responsible for visual information and lasting only a few tenths of a second

Echoic Memory

Responsible for auditory information that last 3 seconds to 4 seconds

Broadbent's Filter and Memory

In order for Sensory Memory to not decay, it must pass through Broadbent's Filter

Short-Term Memory

Lasts around 30 seconds without repetition before information fades. Can typically only handle seven pieces of information. CAN BE IMPROVED WITH MNEMONICS

Working Memory

Element of Short Term Memory that allows us to consciously process and manipulate a few pieces of information. Representative of interplay between short term memory/attention/brain

Elaborative Rehearsal

A way to go from sensory memory all the way to long term memory. More complex than maintenance rehearsal as it requires information to be associated with existing knowledge

Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory

Type of Long Term Memory that accounts for acquired skills and conditioned responses to circumstances and stimuli. Includes procedural memory

Procedural Memory

Type of Implicit Memory which accounts for motor skills and specific physical actions. CEREBELLUM PLAYS PRIMARY ROLL IN THIS

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Type of Long Term Memory which accounts for memories we must consciously recall with effort and focus. HIPPOCAMPUS PLAYS PRIMARY ROLL IN THIS

Episodic Memory

Type of Explicit Memory which accounts for our experiences

Semantic Memory

Type of Explicit Memory which accounts for facts. and concepts we know

Retrieval

The process the brain uses to find information stored in long-term memory

Free Recall

Retrieve stored information without any further information

Cued Recall

When you retrieve this information after being provided a cue

Recognition

The ability to identify specific information that has already been learned

Spacing Effect

Ebbinghaus' observation that if you have learned something then forgotten it, and learn it and then forget it, the more time between relearning the more likely it is to be retained

Semantic Networks

Organization of long term memories into nodes and associations

Nodes

Individual ideas that are part of the semantic network

Associations

Connections between nodes in the semantic network

Response Threshold (Node)

Amount of electrical signal it takes to activate a node in the semantic network

Spreading Activation

When one node is activated in the semantic network and it consequently activates adjacent nodes which further activate nodes

Priming

A memory retrieval cue which allows us to recall a specific piece of information after being presented with a word/phrase/idea that is neurologically close to the desired piece of information (node)

4 Retrieval Cues

Priming, Context Effects, State-Dependent Memory, Serial Position Effect

Context Effects

A retrieval cue when the location where the specific piece of information was first learned/encoded helps us remember

State-Dependent Memory

A retrieval cue when someone learns a new fact/skill in a particular state will more readily recall it in that same state (drunk)

Mood-Dependent Memory

A retrieval cue similar to State-Dependent Memory where people will remember a fact they encoded in a certain mood when they are in that mood again

Serial Position Effect

A retrieval cue which is most accounts for both the primacy and recency effect in lists. Primacy lasts longer than recency.

Primacy Effect

A retrieval cue (from serial position effect) where people remember the first things of a list

Recency Effect

A retrieval cue (from serial position effect) where people remember the last things of a list

Aging Effect on Memory

Recall is more difficult in older people because of larger semantic memories. Prospective memory (ability to perform task at certain time in future) is decreased and time based activities are forgotten.

Prospective Memory

The ability to perform a certain task at a certain time in the future. Decreases in the elderly

Anterograde Amnesia

Occurs when the hippocampus is damaged. The brain cannot create new memories

Retrograde Amnesia

Occurs when the hippocampus is damaged and the brain cannot recall memories.

Korsakoff's Syndrome

Either type of amnesia (retro/antero) caused be thiamine defiance in the brain. Also has syndromes of confabulation

Confabulation

A symptoms of Korsakoff's syndrome where people fabricated memories

Alzeimer's Disease

May be caused by diminished production of ACh, important for Hippocampus (neurons die in there). Symptoms are memory loss, atrophy of brain, dementia

Dementia

Refers to the loss of cognitive abilities

Agnosia

The inability to recognize objects, people, or sounds (only one of the three usually)

Interference

An error in memory retrieval caused by newer information interfering with older information

Retroactive Interference

When more recently learned information blocks recall of information learned in the past

Proactive Interference

When older information interferes with new information that you are trying to learn

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stumbles repeated continuous exposure to that stimulus

Non-Associative Learning

Habituation after one exposure to an event (skydiving once makes jumping out of planes less scary)

Dishabituation

A form of non associative learning and is the opposite of habituation (after baby gets bored of peekaboo, you used stuffed animal once then go back to peekaboo and they love it)

Classical Conditioning

One of two types of associative learning, concerns conditioned/unconditioned stimuli

Classical Conditioning Dog Example

For dogs, unconditioned stimulus is meat and unconditioned response was salivation, then ringing bell with meat causes the bell to become a conditioned stimulus which reminds the dog of the unconditioned stimulus (meat) and produces a conditioned response (salivation)

Extinction

When Pavlov rang the conditioned stimulus to much and didn't give the dog the unconditioned stimulus with it as well

Spontaneous Recovery

After habituation occurs with conditioned responses and causes extinction, a while later, the conditioned stimulus can cause the conditioned response again

Generalization

The process through which additional stimuli can come to elicit the same conditioned response as the initial conditioned stimulus (White rat scares baby, white rabbit scares baby)

Discrimination

The opposite of generalization, pavlov's dogs distinguish between high and low sounding bells

Operant Conditioning

One of two types associative learning which uses both punishment and reinforcement to shape behavior

Skinner's Box

A classical conditioning experiment where he subjected rats to different conditions, in one the box had electrical wires and a shock would deliver until the rat pulled the lever, eventually it learned to pull the lever

Reinforcement

Doing anything that increases the likelihood of a certain behavior being repeated

Negative Reinforcement

Subtracting a negative stimulus

Primary Reinforcers

Things like food. and water which are necessary for daily survival which act as a type of reinforcers

Secondary Reinforcers

Not innately desirable reinforcers but are associated with primary reinforcers and become reinforcers because of that

Continuous Reinforcement

Every single occurrence of a behavior is reinforced. Allows behavior to be learned fast but it will fade faster

Intermittent Reinforcement

Occurrences are sometimes reinforced and are sometimes not. Takes longer than continuous reinforcement but it will be retained longer

Continuous Plus Intermittent Reinforcement

The most effective form of reinforcement, because the behavior will be learned quickly by continuous and then it is retained by switching to intermittent reinforcement

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Type of reinforcement where reinforcement is given after a set amount of times it is performed

Variable Ratio Schedule

Where particular behavior is given after an unpredictable amount of times a behavior is performed. Gambling is an example where you occasional winning is motivating

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement of a behavior is given after a set period of time that does not change

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement of a behavior is given after a period of time that is not constant.

Observational Learning

The process of learning through watching others and imitating their behavior. This takes advantage of mirror neurons

Modeling

When a person observes another conducting some kind of behavior and then they imitate that behavior

Social Cognition

The study of how exactly our attitudes affect our behavior

Three Primary Aspects of Attitude

Affective Component, Behavioral Component, Cognitive Component

Affective Component

The part of attitude that is emotional and says how they feel about something (I love oatmeal)

Behavioral Component

The way a person acts in relation to something (someone avoids places with cold weather during winter)

Cognitive Component

The way a person thinks about something (knowing how cold a Northern city can be and remembering it)

Four Theories of Social Cognition (Attitude effects)

Learning Theory, Functional Attitudes Theory, Elaboration likelihood model, social cognitive theory

Learning Theory

Theory where we develop attitude through the various forms of learning (CLASSICAL conditioning, OPERANT conditioning, OBSERVATIONAL condition). If we eat something yummy, we develop good feelings about it

Functional Attitudes Theory

Theory where attitudes are classified by their function and are divided into four types (adaption, ego defense, ego expression, and knowledge)

Adaption Attitude (Functional Attitudes)

When you adapt an attitude so you will fit in (if you're in the south, you adopt liking SEC)

Ego Defense Attitude (Functional Attitudes)

When you justify your actions that you know are wrong so you can protect your self esteem (if you suck at basketball you develop negative attitude towards basketball to protect your ego)

Ego Expressive Attitude (Functional Attitudes)

When you communicate to other people how you feel about something (love the braves so where a braves shirt)

Knowledge Based Attitude (Functional Attitudes)

An attitude where your knowledge of something can help predict the behavior of other people (someone old and white will be republican)

Elaboration Liklihood Model

A model which explains how people interpret an event via two different ways. Either they think deep and critically and will develop an attitude on something using more substantial reasoning or they will think superficially and will develop an attitude about something via less substantial superficial information. Its a spectrum

Central Route Processing

Part of elaboration likelihood model for attitudes. These people use more substantiative and deeper thinking about an event

Peripheral Route Processing

Part of elaboration likelihood model for attitudes where these people us more superficial thinking about an event

Social Cognitive Theory

A theory of attitude and behavior where our attitudes and behaviors are the result of observing attitudes and behaviors of others. WE DONT LEARN THROUGH CONDITIONING BUT THROUGH OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING AND THINGS THAT POPULATE OUR ENVIRONMENT