Changing family patterns

Divorce: what are the trends in divorce since the 1960’s

• Since 1960, there has been an increase in divorce in UK.

• N.O of divorces between 1961-1969 doubled and doubled again in 1972. It continued to peak up to 1993 at 165k.

• It fell a little but It still stood at 118k in 2012 (about 6x higher than in 1961).

Divorce: What is the reason for the fall in divorce since the 1900’s

Fewer people are marrying in the first place + are choosing to cohabit instead.

Divorce: how does the stats on who divorce is requested by the most contrast the past

About 65% of applications for divorce come from women. This contrasts 1946, only 37% came from women.

Divorce: what type of couples are more at risk for getting a divorce

Young couples, have a child before they marry, cohabit before marriage, those where one or both partners have been married before.

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Changes in law: what 3 changes in law has there been

• Equalising the ground for divorce between the sexes

• Widening the ground for divorce

• making divorce cheaper

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Changes in law: Explajn the changes in the law + dates

• 1923 grounds equalised for men/women.

• 1971 widening of the grounds made divorce easy to obtain + doubled divorce almost over night.

• 1949 legal aid for divorce intro. This meant divorce was cheaper.

• 1969 divorce law reform act - allowed no fault divorce.

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Changes in law: what other solutions can couples do instead of the legal termination of marriage (divorce)

• Desertion: where one partner leaves the other but the couple remain legally married.

• Legal separation: court separates finance/legal laws but they remain married + not free to re marry

• ‘empty shell’ marriage: couple continue to live together but remain married by name only.

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Change in attitudes/decline in stigma

• Previously divorce was stigmatised eg churches refused to conduct marriages involving divorcees.

• As stigma declines, couples are more open to divorce. This means it gets normalised and is no longer seen as shameful.

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Secularisation:

• Refers to decline in influence of religion in society.

• The traditional opposition of churches to divorce carries less weight in society + people are less likely to be controlled by religious teachings or ideas.

• Churches have also began to soften to the idea of divorce, perhaps bc they’re loosing credibility with large parts of the public from its own members.

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Rising expectations of marriage: who is a key sociologist here

Fletcher argues the high expectations people place on marriage today is a key factor in rise in divorce. It makes couples less willing to tolerate an unhappy marriage.

• This links to idea that marriage is solely for romantic love. If that love dies, there is no justification to stay in that marriage. In the past, people had little choice on who they married + as the family was a unit of production, marriage was mainly for economic reasons. This meant they were less likely to be dissatisfied with the lack of intimacy.

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Rising expectations of marriage: How does functionalist Fletcher take an optimistic view

Functionalist fletcher points out the continuing popularity of marriage. The high rate of re marriages shows people aren’t rejecting marriage as an institution.

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Rising expectations of marriage: how do feminists critique functionalist fletchers view

Feminists argue his view is too rose tinted. They argue the oppression of women in marriage is the main cause of marital conflict/divorce but functionalists ignore this. They fail to explain why it is usually women requesting a divorce rather than men.

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Women’s increased financial dependence:

• They are less financially dependant on their husbands.

• Women today are much more likely to be in paid work. 1971 = 53% were, 2020 = 72%.

• although women still earn less than men, equal pay act/sex discrimination act have helped narrow the pay gap.

• Girls opportunity in education has allowed them to get better jobs.

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Women’s increased financial dependence: what do Allan + Crow argue

Allan + crow put forward a similar view, arguing that “marriage is less embedded within the economic system”

Women now have their separate sources of income, therefore are less likely to tolerate conflict.

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Feminist explanations:

• Argue women today perform a dual burden. This creates a new source of conflict. Marriage remains patriarchal as men benefit from women’s triple shift.

• Hoshchild argues for many women, they feel more empowered at work than they do at home. This is due to men’s resistance to do housework.

Divorce: Explanations for changes in divorce

Modernity/individualisation:

• Beck + Giddens argue in modern society, trad norms (such as staying with 1 partner for life) looses its influence over individuals. As a result, each individual is free to persuade their own self interest (individualisation thesis).

• Relationships become more unstable as partners are more unwilling to stay if their needs aren’t met.

• Giddens pure relationship - exists of pure needs than duty’s.

Divorce: how do different perspectives view divorce

• New right: undesirable, undermines marriage + trad nuclear family which is essential for social stability. Creates lone mothers that are dependant on the welfare state.

• Feminists: desirable as it shows women are breaking free of the patriarchal opression of the family.

• Post modernists/individualisation thesis: shows individuals have free to choose when to end relationship that doesn’t meet their needs.

• Functionalists: not necessarily a threat to marriage as an institution, is simply a result of people’s high expectations. Rate of re marriage shows marriage is not rejected.

• Interactionists: aim to understand what divorce means to the individual.

• Personal life: accepts divorce can cause financial/social issues for women however argues due to divorce becoming normalised, family can adapt without disintegration.

Marriage: 4 important stats for the changes in marriage

• Fewer people are marrying: in 2018, 155k first marriages for both partners. Less than half the number in 1962.

• More re marriages: In 2018, 1/3 of marriages were re marriages.

• Marrying later: Average age of married rose by 7yrs between 1978 + 2018.

• Couples are less likely to marriage in church: in 1970, 60% of weddings were religious, 2018 only 20% were.

Marriage: Nme all the reasons for the changes in marriage

• change in attitude

• secularisation

• decline in stigma to alternative

• changes in position to women

• fear of divorce

Marriage: reasons for the changes in marriage

Explain: Change in attitudes

• Less pressure to marry + more freedom for individuals to choose the relationship they want.

Marriage: reasons for the changes in marriage

Explain: secularisation

• According to 2001 census, only 3% of young people with no religion were married compared to 17% with religion.

Marriage: reasons for the changes in marriage

Explain: decline in stigma

• In 1989, 70% believed couples who want kids should marry first. 2012, only 42% thought so.

• Cohabitation

Marriage: reasons for the changes in marriage

Explain: Change to position of women

• Better education + careers, women are economically less dependant on men. This gives them greater freedom to not marry.

Marriage: reasons for the changes in marriage

Explain: fear of divorce

• Witb rising divorce rates, some may be put off marriage due to fear of divorce.

Cohabitation: What are some cohabitation stats which show the trend of it

• there’s 3.5 million cohabiting straight couples in Britain. Estimated 120k same sex cohabitating couples.

Cohabitation: reasons for increased cohabitation

• Are a result in decline of stigma of sex outside marriage. In 1989, only 44% agreed that premarital sex is not wrong. 2012, 65% took this view.

• young are likely to accept cohabitation.

• secularisation

• women’s financial independence.

What is the relationship between marriage + cobabitation

• Yes cohabitation is increasing while marrige is decreasing but the relationship is not clear cut. For some, cohabitation is just the step before marriage, for others it’s a permanent alternative to marriage.

• However, 75% of cohabitating couples state they expect to marry each other

What do many see cohabitation as

Many see cohabitation as a trial marriage where they intend to marry if it goes well.

Benin argues some young people see cohabitation as an attempt to create a more equal relationship. For example it was found that women who cohabitate do less housework than married women.

Same sex relationships:

• It’s hard to tell if theyeve increased/decreased as in the past, these types of relationships would’ve been hidden. However, there has been more acceptance to these couples.

Chosen families: what sociologist discusses chosen families

Weeks describes chosen families as lesbians and gay men as creating couples based on the idea of ‘friendship as kinship’ where friendships become a type of kinship network. He states these offer the same security/stability as heterosexual families.

One person households: what are the trends of one person households

• More people are living alone: In 2019, almost 3/10 households contained only 1 person - a fith more than in 1999.

• By 2033, over 30% of the adult population will be single.

One person households: reasons for these changes

• Increase in separation/divorce has created more one person households especially among men under 65. This is due to after the divorce, children are likely to live with the mother.

• Decline in those marrying/marrying later means more people remain single. It is possible that many of these opt for ‘creative single hood’ a deliberate choice to live alone.

• Some are also choosing to live alone as there is little single partners in their age group - widows.

Living apart together: what sociologists found that this is a significant relationship

Duncan + Phillips for the British social attitudes survey found 1/10 adults are living apart together. This is about half of people classified as single. They found both choice/constraint in this reasonings for this. For eg, some couldn’t afford to yet other couples actively choose to lat because they want to keep their own home/was too early to cohabitate.

Parents/children: what are the trends of childbearing (process of giving birth to kids)

• Nearly half (48.5%) of all children are born outside marriage. However nearly all these births are jointly registered as the couple is cohabitating.

• Women are having kids later Average age rose by 4 years to 30.7yrs between 1971-2019

• women are having fewer children: avg child per women in 1964 = 2.93, 2020 = 1.58.

• More women are childless

Parents/children: what are the reasons for the changes with childbearing

• Increased birth outside marriage: Decline in stigma, increase in cohabitation.

• Later age of having kids, fewer children, many childless: all due to women have more options than just motherhood.

Parents and children: lone parent families

What are some statistics that display the trends of lone parent families

• LPF make up 24% of all families.

• About 90% of these families are headed by lone parent mothers.

• A child living with alone parent is twice as likely to be in poverty as a child living with two parents.

Parents and children: lone parent families

What are the reasons for the patterns of LPF

• Theyev risen due to increase in divorce + increase of never married women having children.

• In the past, LPF were usually a result of a partner dying.

Parents and children: lone parent families

why are most LPF headed by mothers

• widespread belief that women by nature suit an expressive role.

• The fact divorce courts usually give the children to the mother.

• Fact men may be less willing than women to give up work for children.

• Single by choice: they may not wish to cohabitate or marry. Middle class mothers may want to limit the father’s involvement as they can support them on their own.

• Lower class mothers may choose to depend on the welfare state to avoid abuse.

Parents and children: lone parenthood, welfare state and poverty

What does Charles Murray think about lone parent mothers

• Sees the growth of LPM as a result from the welfare state being too generous.

• Argues this has created perverse incentives, it rewards bad behaviour (having kids without being able to provide for them). The welfare state creates a dependency culture where people assume it will support them.

• solution is to abolish welfare benefits as this would reduce the dependency culture that encourage births outside marriage.

Parents and children: lone parenthood, welfare state and poverty

Criticis of Charles Murray views about lone parent mothers

• State welfare benefits are far from generous + LPF are most likely to be in poverty:

• Lack of affordable child care = stops parents from working.

• inadequate welfare benefits.

• most lone parents are women who generally earn less than men

• failures of fathers to pay maintenance

Parents and children: step families

Statistics about step families

• Stepfakilies account for 10% of families with dependant children in Britain.

• In 85% of step families, at least 1 child is from the women’s previous relationship.

• Ferri + Smith argue step families are very similar to normal families. However are at greater risk of poverty.

Parents and children: stepfamilies

Reasons for these patterns

• The increase of LPF has resulted in an increase in step families.

• more children in stepfamilies are from the woman previous relationship than the man’s because after a break up, children are likely to remain with the mother.

• Thwyre at greater risk of poverty there are often more children + stepfather may have to support kids from previous relationship

Ethnic differences in family patterns:

What does berthoud argue

Berthoud argues British culture is becoming more individualistic + this is having an impact on family patterns. He compares family patterns in late 1900’s with 3 groups.

Ethnic differences in family patterns:

What does berthoud discover about births south Asian families

British south Asian families:

• more traditional life. High rates of marriage, low rates of cohabitation/divorce. Younger marriage.

• Arranged marriages were higher along Sikhs/muslims.

• Higher rate of 3 gen households, the young had a strong duty to support elders.

• High value placed on izzat (family honour) on daughters.

Ethnic differences in family patterns:

What does berthoud discover about white British families:

White British families:

• Lower/later marriage + fertility rates.

• Smaller family sizes.

• High rate of divorce/cohabitation.

• Arranged marriages were almost unknown. Intermarriage with other ethnic groups was common.

Ethnic differences in family patterns:

What does berthoud discover about black briths Caribbean families:

Black British Caribbean families:

• lower marriage rates than the 2 groups.

• fertility rates similar to white British families.

• high rates of lone parenthood + intermarriage with diff ethics groups esp white British families.

Ethnic differences in family patterns:

What does berthoud state all families have in common

Despite the differences between these groups, all three are moving in the same direction: away from old fashioned views and towards modern individualism. This is where individual choice in relationships is more important than commitments. Argues Caribbean families are ahead of this trend, south Asians are behind it.

Ethnic differences in family patterns: changes in British south Asian families

Describe the changes of British south Asians families

Bhatti notes there has been some changes in regard to attitudes among the young + conflict with elders where sons had chose to marry outside their culture.

There has also been an increase in lone parenthood: between 1991 and 2011, the n.o of LPF increased from 10% to 17%.

Ethnic differences in family patterns:

Black British families: what trend does Berthoud discover

• Argues key features of black Caribbean family are low rates of marriage, high rates of lone parents.

• Believes their family patterns are largely headed by lone parent mothers who rely on female relatives for support. No men are usually present.

Ethnic differences in family patterns:

Black British families: how does reynolds disagree with berthoud

Reynolds argues the stats on lone parenthood are misleading. Argues many ‘lone’ parents are in stable/supportive non cohabitating relationships with a visiting partner who plays a full parental role.

Ethnic differences in family patterns: what is important to note

While there is a growing trend of individualism among families in all ethnic groups, we should note there’s continuing diversity in each group. For eg, British south Asian families may differ from one another due to religion, social class, generations.

The extended family today:

What are two opposing views of the existence of the extended family

Charles: swansea study found the class 3 gen family all living under roof together is all but extinct. The only significant exceptions she found were among the city’s Bangladeshi community.

Wilmott argues it hasn’t disappeared entirely. It continues to exist as a dispersed extended family where relatives are geographically separated but maintain frequent contact through visits/phone calls.

The extended family today: describe what a Beanpole family is

It is a particular type of extended family. Brannen states it’s long and thin.

• it is extended vertically through 3 or more gens (grandparents, parents, children).

• It is NOT extended horizontally (doesn’t involves aunt, uncles, cousins).

• They’re the result of 2 demographic changes (1) increase life expectancy means more surviving grand parents (2) smaller family sizes mean people have fewer siblings, thus fewer horizontal lines

The extended family today: what is proof that in spite of the rise of the beanpole family there is still a sense of obligation to extended kin

Finch + Mason found over 90% of people have given or received financial help and about half had cared for a sick relative. However they found it was more expected from female relatives than males to do this.

The extended family today: what did cheap find

Where personal care for an elderly person is needed, a daughter/daughter in law is preferred. Sons are rarely chosen for this. Daughters are rarely chosen to help provide people money. However finch + Mason found not all daughters play an equal part, for eg there may be legitimate excuses why they may not help a relative.