Exam#2 Intro to psychology

Memory 

the ability to store and retrieve information 

What are the 3 memory process

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

How are memories fromed

Memories are constructed not recorded

because of this it is diffuclt for computers to remember the gist of little Red riding hood than 20 numbers and it is diffcult for humans to rember 20 numbers but know the gist of read riding hood

Semantic encoding 

• the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory

• How we remember something depends on how we think about it at the time

Example: Instead of remedering a list of numbers putting the numbers in a song 

Who are Craik and Tulving

Conducted an experiment that where they presented particpents with three seris of words and asked them to make one of three types of judgments 

• Semantic judgement 

• Rhyme judgment: 

• Visual judgment: 

They found out that semantic judgments. resulted in much better memory 

Semantic judgment 

Think about the meaning of the words

Rhyme Judgments

Think about the sound of the words

Visual Judgment

Think about the apperarence of the words

• Visual encoding

• the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures

• Example:  When you want to by some food you can image living room flooded in coke, your bedroom pillows stuffed with popcorn, and your bathtub full of cheese dip

  • When you arrive at the store, you simply take a mental tour of your house to remember everything

  • Visual encoding results in improved memory compared to simple verbal encoding

• Organizational encoding 

the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items

Example 

Grouping a list of things that you are buying  based on their catergory 

Organizing what you are buying based on what islale they are in 

Storage

The process of maintaining information in memory over time

How is memory strage divided 

Memory storage is divided into three types, based on how long the information is retained

Sensory memory, Short-term memory, Long-term memory 

Sensory memory

A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less 

What is Sperling, 1960

This was an experiment were participants were asked to recall 12 letters

• Participants recalled fewer than half

– Two interpretations:

• People couldn’t encode all of the letters in such a brief period of time

• People had encoded the letters but forgotten them

while trying to recall everything they had seen

However when they were asked to reprot only a single row participants were able to recall alost all the letters  

What are the two types of sensory storage 

1) Iconic memory

2) Echoic memory 

What is Ionic memory 

Type of Sensory Storage it is a fast decaying store os visual information

Hold memory for a short amount of time 

What is echoic memory

Type of Ecoic memory it is a fast decaying of Auditory information

Hold memory for a short amount of time  longer than ionic

Miller (1956)

He found that most people can keep 7± pieces of infromation within their short-term memmory 

Short-term memory

Hold non-sensory infromation for more than a few seconds but less than a minuite

Peterson and Peterson

• Gave participants strings of 3 letters 

• Then gave them a distraction task

• Afterward he asked them to recall th eltters 

What are ways to remember something for longer

Rehearsal – the process of keeping information in short- term memory by mentally repeating it

• Each time you repeat something, you give it another 15-20 seconds of shelf life

Chunking – combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short- term memory

Working memory

• active maintenance of information in short-term storage

  • This model acknowledges

    • The limited nature of this kind of memory

    • The activities that are commonly associated with it

Long-term storage

a type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years

No known capacity limits

• This differs from both sensory and short-term memory

• Think of all of the things that you can remember…

– Once in long term memory, it may never leave

• After 50 years, participants could remember 90% of their high school class

– Keep in mind that this information likely hadn’t been accessed

in a very long tim

Who is H.M

H.M. was a patient suffering from seizure

Doctors removed his temporal lobes, including the hippocampus and some surrounding regions

After the procedure  

• H.M. could converse normally

  • Use and understand language

  • Perform normally on intelligence tests

  • … but could not remember anything that happened to him after the operation

  – H.M. retained his sensory and short-term memories, but lost his long-term

  memory

What is Anterograde amnesia

– inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long- erm store

– Studies of H.M. and others suggest that this can result from damage to the hippocampus

Retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the

date of an injury or surgery

H.M. had worse anterograde than retrograde amnesia

• This suggests that the hippocampus is not the site of long-term

memory

What are the types of memory long term

Explicit memory

Implicit memory

Procedural memory

Explicit memory

when people consciously or

intentionally retrieve past experiencese

Implicit memory

the influence of past experiences on later behavior and performance, even without an

effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection

Not consciously recalled, but “implied” by our actions

Procedural memory 

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice

Knowing how” to do things

– Riding a bike, tying your shoelaces, playing guitar…

• You can do these thing without access to knowledge of what you are doing

What is priming

an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a

recent exposure to the stimulus

– Partly why multiple choice questions are far easier than recall questions on exams

Semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of

the world

• You know things, such as when your mother birthday is, but you don’t remmeber where you learned them 

Episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

• Memories that happen in a specific time and place. 

Transience

Forgetting that occurs with the passage of time

• It is the gradual switch from specific memories to more general memories

Draw the table of Long term memory

Retroactive

When new infromation makes it harder to remember old infromation

Retro—> Past gets affected 

Example: Gor a new phone, makes it a bit diffcule for you to use your old phone 

Proactive interfernce

Old information makes it harder to learn or remember new information

Example: You drove an atomatic for years now it is hard for you drive a manual car

Absentmindedness

A lapse in attention that result in memory failure

• Without proper attentin material is much less likely to be stored properly an recall later 

Blocking

A failuare to retrieve infromation that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce

• The tip of the tounge

Memory misatribution

Assigning a relcollection or an idea to the wrong source

Source memory

Recall of when, where and how information was acquired

Suggestibilitty

The source tendecy to incorperate misleading infromation from external sources into personal recollection

Bias

the distorting influence of present knowledge, belifs and feeling on recollection of previous experince 

• Sometimes what people remember about the past says less about what happend and more about how they feel about what happen 

Presistence

The inrusive recollection of eventh we wish we could forget

• Emotional experience tend to be better remembered than non-emotional experince 

Flashbulb memories

Detralied recollections of when and where we about shocking events

• not as accurate as they may seem 

What is learning

The acquistion of new knowledge skills or responses from experince that results in a relatively permanent change in state of the the learner

• Learning is based on experince

• Learning produces change int eh organism 

• These change are relatively perment 

Habituation

a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in repsonding

sensitization 

simple form of learning that occurs when presentatioion of a stimulus leads to an increased response leads to increase repsonse to a later stimulus 

• Example: Can’t ignore the fly that is bothering you 

What are the 2 simple froms of learning

1) Classical conditioning

2) Operant Conditioning

Who is Jhon B.Watson

• Began the vheaviroist movoment 

Psychologists should “never use the term consciousness, menta states, mind, content,

introspectively verifiable, imagery, and the like.”

Who is Ivan Pavolv

Was studying digestion in laboratory animals

srgially implantes test tudbes into the cheeks of fogs to measure their salivary resposne to food 

In doing so he accidentail disscovered classical condtioning 

Classical conditioning

When a netural stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response

what ae the four elemes of classical conidtioning

• unconditioned stimulus:

• Unconditioned response

• Condition response 

• Condition Stimulus

• unconditioned stimulus

• Something that reliably reproduces a naturally occuring reation in an orgnansim 

Unconditioned response

a refliexive reaction that is reliable prdocued by an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US.

Condition response 

a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned

stimulus

Why was Classical conditioning a bing deal for behaviorist

In the behaviorist's minds, this cemented the idea that it’s ok to take the “mind” out of psychology

Acquisition

the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented togethe

What is second order conditioning 

Conditioned stimulus can be used as an unconditioned stimulus to condition anew stimulus  - conditioning where a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure

Extinction

the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US

• Behavior declines abruptly, then continues to drop until the CS no longer produces the CR

Spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

Generalization

the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition

Discrimination

the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

• The more the stimulus changes, the less conditioned responding is observed

– Generalization and discrimination are two sides of the same coin

• The more organisms show one, the less they show the other

• This can be modified with trainin

Who are Watson and Raynor

They condcuted an experiment with on little Albert

Little Albert was first presented with stimuli that did not cause a fear response

– White rat, dog, rabbit, various masks, burning newspaper

• Watson also found something that did cause a fear response in Little Albert

– Struck a large steel bar with a hammer, producing a loud noise

– This caused Little Albert to cry, tremble and be generally displeased

What was the Acquisition Phase during Waston and Raynor experiment

Little Albert was presented with a white rat

– As soon as he reached out to grab it, Watson

struck the steel bar with the hammer

– This pairing occurred again and again over several

trials

• Eventually the sight of the white rat caused

Little Albert to recoil in terror

What were the four condition components of Watson and Raynor experiment

Unconditioned Stimulus – hammer banging steel bar

• Unconditioned Response – fear (crying, clamoring)

• Conditioned Stimulus – white rat

• Conditioned Response – fear (crying, clamoring)

What is the significance of Waston nad Ravo’s experiments

Showed that complex behaviors could be conditioned as well as simple ones

– Showed that classical conditioning works in humans

– Showed that fears could be present without the need to theorize deeper unconscious processes or early traumatic experiences

Operant conditioning

a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future

Who is Edward L. Thorndike

• Studied instrumental behaviors, which are actions taken to achieve a goal or solve a problem.

• Developed the Law of Effect:

  • Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

  • Behaviors followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated

B.F. Skinner

Observation:

• Unlike Pavlov’s passive dogs, most organisms actively interact with their environment to gain rewards.

Behavior 

• ehavior is shaped by its consequences:

  • Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior.

  • Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Skinner’s approach to studying learning focused on reinforcement and punishment

Operant behavior

behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment

-Behaviors “operate” on the environment

– The environment responds by providing events that strengthen (i.e. reinforce) or weaken (i.e. punish) the behavior

Reinforcer

any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to i

Punisher

any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to

it

What are the the types of reinforcment

Positive – situations in which a stimulus is presented

Negative – situations in which a stimulus is removed

What types of Reinforcements increase behaviors

Positive reinforcement – a rewarding stimulus is presented

Negative reinforcement – an unpleasant stimulus is removed

What types of Reinforcements decrease behaviors

Positive punishment – an unpleasant stimulus is administered

Negative punishment – a rewarding stimulus is removed

What is Fixed-interval schedule

reinforcers are presented

at fixed-time periods,

provided that the

appropriate response is

made

– On a 2-minute fixed-interval

schedule

• A response is reinforced, but

only after 2 minutes have

past since the last

reinforcemen

Variable-interval schedule

a behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has past since the last

reinforcement

ON average every 2 minute around 1 week 

How does fixed and variable interval schedules exhbit response

Produce slow, steady, and methodical responding

• Reinforcement is based on a time scale rather than how

many responses occu

What is Fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made

A factory worker gets paid for every 10 items produced.

Continuous reinforcement

The behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs.

• Give a dog a treat every time 

a special case of a fixed- ratio schedule in which reinforcement is presented after each response

Example Buy 2 Get 1 free

What is Intermittent reinforcement –

when only some of the response made are followed by reinforcement

Intermittent reinforcement effect

operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement schedules

– If a vending machine doesn’t work even once, you’ll stop putting money in

– If a slot machine goes extra long without a payoff, you’ll likely keep playing

Shaping

shaping is a learning process where successive steps toward a final desired behavior are reinforced, such as by award  gradually guiding the learner to the target behavior

Example

1. Step 1: Give food when the rat moves toward the lever.

2. Step 2: Give food only when it touches the lever.

3. Step 3: Give food only when it presses the lever.

4. Eventually, the rat learns to press the lever on its own.

successive approximation

Reward of the desired

behavior

– Everything the organism does that brings it closer to

the desired goal is reinforced

– This process can speed up the operant learning

process

What is Mutidimensional Scaling

tatistical technique used to visualize the similarity or dissimilarity between sets of items.

o create a map where similar items are placed closer together and dissimilar items are farther apart

Emotion

A postive or negative exprerince that is assoicated with a partcilar pattern of physiological activity 

Who is william James and Carl Lange

emotional experience is the consequence, not the cause, of our physiological reactions

What is the James-Lange Theory

A stimulus triggers activity in the body which in turn produces an emotional experince 

( Emotional experience is the consequence not the cause of our physiological reactions

What is the cannon-Baird theory

It cliams that stimmuli simultanesoulsy trigger activity in the body and emtional experince in the brain

What are claims in facor of the cannon-Baired theory

1) Emotion happens quickly while the body responds slowly

2) People have difficulty accurately detecting bodly changes

3) Non emotional stimuli can cause bodily changes 

• We don’t get emotional when we have a fever 

4) There aren’t engous unique pattersn of bodily actions to account for all of the feelings that we can have 

Who are Schacter and Singer (1962)

Schachter and Singer were psychologists who proposed a theory of emotion called the Two-Factor Theory. According to them:

• People experience the same physiological reaction (like increased heart rate or adrenaline) in response to all emotional stimuli.

• However, they interpret that reaction differently depending on the situation they’re in.

( Stimulus—> Label it —> emotion)

What is the Two facotr theory

– the theory that emotions are based on inferences about the causes of physiological arousa

• Your body reacting then you brain deciding what metions that means based on context 

We don’t feel emotions based on our body’s reaction. We feel emotion after we intepret those reaction in context  

So which duo was right? James-Lange or Cannon-Baird?

James-Lange were right that the patterns of physiological responses are not the same for all

the emotions

– Cannon-Baird were right when they said that people aren’t perfectly sensitive to physiological responses

ian believes that cannon-Baird is mostly right ( its is the closts 

and he believes that the two factor theory is mostly wrong 

Emotional communication

an observable sigh on an emtional state

How can people infer emotion from

• Vocal cules ( intonation, inflection, loudness, and duration 

• gaze direction 

• Gait

• Even a brief touch on the arm

How is the face an emotiaonl communication

Facial expression

– 43 distinct muscles at various levels of intensity can create up to 10,000 visibly different expressions

– Ekman and Friesen developed an anatomically based system (FACS) to measure these

• The face is neurologically tied to our emotion system

Who are Ekman and Friesen

They developed an anatomically based system (FACS) to measure facial expressions

They also created the facial feedback hypthesis