Exam One

History of Psychology

What did Plato (428-348 BC) develop?

Basic model of human motivation which was divided into three parts: the rational, the spirited, and the appetitive. This range is similar to the modern automatic vs conscious processes of the mind.

In the debate for nature versus nurture what side of the debate did Plato fall in?

Believed in the role of in-born natural processes and innate ideas, emphasizing that knowledge is not solely derived from experience.

Who was Aristotle (385-323 BC) and where did he fall on the nature vs nurture debate?

He was the student of Plato and he believed in the idea of nurturance leading to a person’s characteristics and abilities.

What did Galen (129-210 AD) argue about personality (temperance)?

It came from the organs and the four humours.

What are the four humors developed by Galen?

Blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile.

In his treatise “On the Device for Dispelling Sorrow” what did AL Kindi (800-871 AD) discuss?

How our thoughts about an event/ experience have just as much of an effect on emotional responses as the actual event.

What are the characteristics of the nature versus nurture debate?

The idea that psychological characteristic are innate or acquired. Likely both sides to the argument hold some merit.

Whast did China’s Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD) conduct?

Psychological testing

What did Francis Bacon (1551 - 1626) discover?

Knowledge is gained from what we can observe and experience with our senses.

What did John Locke’s (1632-1704) theory of tabula rusa state?

People are born with minds that are blank slats and all knowledge comes from experiences or perception.

Sigmund Freud came up with a lot of theories about how the mind operated, what was the name and concept of the theory that actually has some merit to it?

Psychoanalytical therapy which stems from the idea that the unconcious mind plays a large role in emotions and actions of a person. This theory emphasizes the influence of unconscious processes on behavior and mental states.

How were ideas between early philosophers first accepted?

Not by scientific reason or by observation, but through who could better argue and debate their stance on an issue.

i.e. Emission theory of vision over the Intromission theory of vision.

What is the Emission theory of vision?

The theory that suggests vision occurs when light is emitted from the eyes, allowing individuals to perceive objects.

What is the Intromission theory of vision?

The theory that proposes vision occurs when light enters the eyes, allowing individuals to perceive objects.

When was Intromission theory of vision fully accepted?

until the middle ages with the mathematicvian Alhanzen and his book Kitab al-Manazir, which provided a comprehensive explanation of how light interacts with the eye.

How do we resolve disputes over concepts today?

By relying on empiricism, also known as scientific evaluation and observation.

What is psychology?

The science of behavior, the mind, and the brain.

What is the process, strengths and weaknesses of Naturalistic Observation?

Process: It is the simplest method where you observe in the natural environment.

Strengths: You see behavior as it happens.

Weaknesses: Not all behavior is for public viewing

i.e. sexual intercourse

What is the process, strengths and weaknesses of Interviews/Questionairres

Process: Asking people what they do with wither face to face interaction or with surveys.

Strengths: The information is direct from the source and you can study private behaviors like sex.

Weaknesses: People have a tendency to respond in a socially desirable manner and you are relying on an individuals memory.

What is the process, strengths and weaknesses of Laboratory tests?

Process: Devising a task in a closed lab to measure a specific behavior.

Strengths: You can directly assess behavior in a controlled manner and compare participants behaviors to each other.

Weaknesses: Tasks can be very artificial and not replicable in the real world and you are only able to measure one behavior at a time.

What is the process, strengths and weaknesses of Specialized Instruments?

Process: UIsing tech such as a smart watch to measure biometrics.

Strengths: Real time, precise measurements of a behavior.

Weaknesses: Easy to measure physical behaviors however, it is very difficult to measure abstract behaviors.

True or False:

The methods to study psychological behavior are rarely used individually, instead collaboration between the methods is primarily used.

True

How do we study the mind?

We examine a person’s mental process (conscious or unconscious) or internal subjective experience (thoughts, attitudes, emotions, memories)

What is the difference between attitude and emotion?

Attitude is longterm stable reactions to the environment ( think state of being) and emotions are short term responses to environmental pressures.

How does a psychologist determine internal processes of the mind since they cannot be directly observed"?

They infer based on the presence of behavior like facial expressions to determine mental processes. For example since babies wear their emotions they are easy to read.

Whhat groups of people believe that the mind resuides in the body in some form?

The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, along with modern scientist that argue that the mind arises from the activity of the brain.

Rene Descartes proposed the idea of Dualism, which is now rejected by modern science. What is Dualism?

The idea that the mind was separate and controlled the body. It maintains the thought that although fundamental behaviors are governed by the body. Emotional thoughts are governed by the mind which was a separate entity.

What is the brain comprised of?

Nerve cells, neurons, and neurotransmitters

What does an electroencephalogram (EEG) do?

It measures electrical activity in the brain.

What does an electrocardiogram (ECG) do?

It measures the electrical activity of the heart and helps to determine anxiety levels.

What does an electrodermal activity (EDA) do?

It measures electrical conductance of the skin, indicating emotional arousal. (alterness)

What does na electromyography (EMG) do?

It measures the electrical activity of muscles, helping to assess muscle function and diagnose neuromuscular disorders.

What phrase sums up the connection between the mind and the brain?

The mind is what the brain does.

What is empirical science?

Empirical science is a branch of science that relies on observation and experimentation to gather data and test hypotheses.

In the late 19th Century what studies came together to create the field of psychology?

Rational/empirical philosophy and physiological research

Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 created the first psychology lab and developed the school of structuralism. What is structuralism?

The idea that the experiences of an individual can be broken into their constituent parts and then reflected upon to come to a conclusion that is sufficient for understanding the structure of the mind. Known as introspection.

What is introspection?

The process of asking people to look inward and record their thoughts.

What are the constituent parts that an experience would be broken into?

Arousal, Behavior, and Cognitions

What is arousal?

The sympathetic nervous system response, the standard physiological reaction that prepares the body for action, including increased heart rate and heightened alertness.

What is behavior?

The actions or reactions of an individual in response to external or internal stimuli, often influenced by thoughts and emotions. For example Fight or Flight, Tend or Befriend, and Facial responses.

What is cognitions?

Thoughts and cognitive experience change.

What are the limits of introspection?

• Language can’t describe every experience

• Mental processes can occur without awareness

• The process does not work for young children or animals

William James (1842-1910) was an opponent of the structuralist and also. popularized psychology in the United States. He developed a new school of psychology called functionalism. What is Functionalism?

Functionalism is a school of psychology that focuses on the purpose of consciousness and behavior, emphasizing how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment. revealing that certain psychological processes posed a greater chance for survival than others.

Also in response to structuralism there was the Gestalt Theory which was led by Wertheimer and Kohler. What is Gestalt Theory?

Gestalt Theory is a psychological approach that emphasizes understanding the human mind and behavior as a whole, rather than by analyzing its individual components. It asserts that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, focusing on patterns and context in perception.

i.e. illusions as an example of needing the bigger picture

Sigmund Freud pioneered the idea of psychoanalytic theory. what is psychoanalytic theory?

Emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior, highlighting the role of childhood experiences and internal conflicts in shaping personality and psychological issues.

during the 1920s to 1950s, scientists like John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner challenged psychology by creating the school of Behaviorism. What is Behaviorism?

A psychological approach that focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they are learned through interaction with the environment, dismissing internal mental states as a subject of study.

What did the psychologist Thorndike determine?

Determined that behavior is influenced by its consequences, leading to the Law of Effect, which states that responses followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

What is the cognitive revolution?

A shift in psychology during the 1950s and 1960s that emphasized the study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving, marking a departure from behaviorism. This resulted in the creation of test like the Stroop task to determine if the cognitive processes can be measured and analyzed scientifically. In addition the cognitive revolution led to the creation of cognitive neuroscience.

What is the Biopsychosocial model?

A psychological model that integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to understand mental health and behavior, emphasizing the interplay between these components.

In the BPS model what is the biological level?

Refers to the physical and genetic factors that influence behavior, including brain function, neurotransmitters, and physiological processes.

In the BPS model what is the Psychological/Individual level?

Refers to the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral factors that affect an individual's mental health, including thoughts, feelings, and personal experiences.

In the BPS Model what is the Social/Cultural level?

Refers to the social and cultural influences on behavior, including family dynamics, community, socioeconomic status, and cultural norms that shape individual experiences and mental health.

What is neuropsychology?

Study of relationship between brain systems and behavior/mental activity

What is social psychology?

Study of how a person’s mental life and behavior are shaped by interactions with others.

What is School psychology?

Focus on delivering comprehensive psychological services to children and the family in school systems.

What is cognitive psychology?

Study of human perception, thought and memory

What is cultural psychology?

Study of how thought and behavior are influence by cultural factors

What is I/O Psychology?

Industrial/organizational psychology involves application to workplace; focus on improving productivity, health, and quality of work life.

What is developmental psychology?

The study of cognitive, emotional, and behavior changes across a person’s lifespan.

What is clinical psychology?

The study of treatment of mental, emotional, or behavior disorders.

What is forensic psychology?

The application of psychology principles to legal issues.

What is personality psychology?

The study of the nature of personality, including development and structure.

What is counseling psychology?

The application of psychology techniques to help people cope with everyday problems and serious adversity.

What is sports psychology?

The action of helping athletes to refine their focus on competition goals, increase motivation, and decrease anxiety or fear of failure.

What is health psychology?

The study of the relationship between psychological factors (stress) and health as well as motivate patients to engage in healthy behavior (instituting dietary changes)

Why did the psychoanalysts (e.g., Freud) and behaviorists clash?

Psychoanalysts believed that the unconscious mind was the key to the mind while behaviorist believed it was external behaviors and not any inducible thought conscious or not.

What is psychiatry?

a subfield of medicine in which physicians are licensed to prescribe drugs and treat physical causes of psychological disorders

What are three powerful tendencies that harm our commonsense thinking?

hindsight bias, overconfidence, and perceiving patterns in random events

What is hindsight bias?

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it.

What does the process of overconfidence mean?

We think we know more than we do

How does ideology become ingrained in groups of people regardless of the truth/validity of it?

False News, Repetition, Cognitive Availability of Powerful Examples, and Group identity and the echo chamber of the like minded

What is the Post Truth World?

Opinion ovrrides fact, feeling hijack reason, bias crushes evidence, AKA Facts don't seem to matter

What is confirmation bias?

Engrained information tends to stick around, we welcome information that supports and amplifies our ideas.

What is critical thinking?

Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assess the source, uncovers hidden values, weighs evidence and assesses conclusions.

What is the Teigen 1986 study discover?

discovered that individuals tend to rely on subjective impressions rather than objective data when making judgments, highlighting biases in decision-making.

What is the overconfidence effect?

An effect where a person overestimates their abilities, knowledge, or predictions, leading to poor decision-making.

What is impostor syndrome?

The result of an expert in a field known how little they known about a field or how large a field is resulting in the expert thinking they are unqualified or incapable of performing, which is the opposite of the overconfidence effect.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to seek out and accept evidence that confirm our theories and belief while resisting information that discredits our theories

What does confirmation bias mean for psychological studies?

We will be more receptive to evidence that proves our hypothesis correct, potentially ignoring crucial evidence to determine how the world works.

How do we reduce confirmation bias?

In science, by using the scientific method.

In life, by being mindful of it.

What is hindsight bias?

The tendency to believe we already knew something, only after being told the answer. Researchers believe it happens because, once you learn something your brain can’t help but draw connections between that new info and all the other things you already know.

How do we prevent hindsight bias?

We must stop before giving credit and imagine the exact opposite scenario that we think is obvious. If you can consider how the situation could have played out differently, it helps to reduce the bias.

Why do we have Hindsight bias?

It is because we have hindsight, which is generally a good thing, being able to look back at mistakes is typically a good thing to help us learn.

What is the scientific attitude?

A mindset of being an amiable skeptic and use the scientific method.

What does ambiable skepticism mean?

Combining openness and wariness, remaining open to ideas but wary to new findings without proper evidence.

What is the scientific method?

A systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, with the formulation, testing and modification of hypothesis.

What is a conspiracy theory?

Someone who is unwilling to accept any evidence that they don’t identify themselves.

How should sicentist react when presented with information as fact?

• Clarify and Define terms

• Demonstrate Humility

• Defer to the Weight of Evidence

Why do scientists need to clarify and define terms?

To ensure both parties as discuss the same thing. If terms are not agreed upon, two separate ideas maybe argued. Defining terms reduces the likelihood of moving goalposts.

What does it mean to move goalposts?

Redefining terms or concepts to minimize the others argumentsor to change the criteria for success in a debate.

What does it mean for a scientist ot demonstrate humility?

Be willing to accept new evidence.

What does it mean for a scientist to defer to the weight of evidence?

Scientist should concede if the evidence for a counterargument is more than the evidence for their hypothesis.

True or False:

Theories on free will are not good scientific theory.

True

What are the steps of the scientific method?

• Develop a Theory

• State you hypothesis

• Conduct Research and Analyze Data

  • Data Support the Theory → Refine Hypothesis

  • Data Fails to Support → Revise Theory

• Report the Results

What makes a good scientific theory (and hypothesis)?

A good scientific theory is falsifiable, a priori over post hoc, and parsimony.

What does falsifiable mean?

The ability to disprove or try to disprove by finding an opposite theory or creating a disproving theory which is done to combat conformation bias.

What does a priori over post hoc mean?

Making our theories ahead of time not after the fact. This is done to combat Hindsight bas. Also combating against random chance changing our theory even if the random outlier was counterintuitive.

What does parsimony mean?

Refers to the principle that the simplest explanation is usually the best one, minimizing assumptions and complexities in a scientific theory.

What is the difference between theory and hypothesis?

A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that is based on a body of evidence, while a hypothesis is a testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

What is correlation research?

Only observing and measuring as they naturally happen.