AP exam 4

Define metabolism

is the sum of all chemical and physical changes that occur in body tissues

What is the difference between catabolic and anabolic reactions?

Anabolic build up, catabolic break down

When electrons pass from one molecule to another, the electron donor is __________ and the electron acceptor is _________.

Oxidized, reduced

) During glucose metabolism, __________ is an anaerobic process because it does not require oxygen to proceed.

glycolysis

What initial organic compound is catabolized during glycolysis? (starting molecule)

6C glucose

Where does glycolysis take place in the cell?

cytosol

How many net ATP molecules are formed during the glycolysis of one molecule of glucose?

2

) During glycolysis, four ATP are created, but the end product is two net ATP. Why is this so?

2 are used

How many pyruvate molecules are produced during glycolysis from one molecule of glucose?

2

) How many NADH molecules are produced during glycolysis from one molecule of glucose?

two

Where does the NADH produced during glycolysis get transported to?

ETC

) NAD+ gains an electron to become NADH, so NADH is the (oxidized or reduced?) form of NAD+. FADH2 loses an electron to become FADH, so FADH is the (oxidized or reduced?) form of FADH2

Reduced; oxidized

What happens to pyruvate if there are inadequate amounts of oxygen in the cell? (the molecule produced is also known as lactic acid)

reduced to form lactate (NADH is oxidized)

In the presence of oxygen, where is pyruvate transported to in the cell?

Citric acid cycle in MITOCHONDRIA

In the process of glycolysis, what are the end products from the catabolism of one glucose molecule?

2 pyruvate 2NADH and 2ATP

Glucose enters the cell’s cytoplasm from the

interstitial fluid

2 ATP are catabolized to yield

2 ADP and 2 inorganic phosphate groups (denoted as “Pi”).

The 2 inorganic phosphate groups phosphorylate glucose using a process called _____ in glycolosis

substrate level phosphorylation

Two pyruvate molecules undergo a series of reactions to form two molecules of what molecule during the intermediate step?

Two acetyl-CoA molecules

How many ATP are produced from the synthesis of acetyl-CoA from pyruvate?

NO ATP

Each acetyl-CoA molecule then undergoes reactions to produce

Citric acid

The end products from 2 turns of the citric acid cycle are:

2 CoA (coenzyme A), 4 CO2; 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 GTP. The carbon dioxide produced in the citric acid cycle is what we exhale

NADH and FADH2

high energy coenzyme molecules which are shuttled to the electron transport chain

The 2 inorganic phosphates are used to phosphorylate 2-ADP molecules into 2 ATP using (citric acid cycle)

substrate level phosphorylation

What is the difference between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation?

Substrate is an enzyme uses the energy released by a chemical reaction to transfer a phosphate group to a suitable acceptor molecule. Oxidative phosphorylation is the generation of ATP as the result of the transfer of electrons from the coenzymes NADH and FADH2 to oxygen by a sequence of electron carriers within mitochondria

Which step of cellular respiration produces 90-95% of the ATP used by body cells?

ETC

Which step of cellular respiration utilizes molecules called cytochromes?

ETC

The reactions of the electron transport chain produce ATP by which type of phosphorylation.

oxidative

The kinetic energy produced by passing hydrogen ions through ATP synthase to generate ATP is called

chemiosmosis

During the process of cellular respiration, how many ATP are formed from one molecule of glucose?

30-32 up to 38

Define gluconeogenesis

Form glucose from non carbohydrate sources

What is glycogen and in what two places is it mainly stored in the body?

Storage form of glucose in liver and skeletal muscle

What is the difference between glycogenesis and glycogenolysis?

Genesis is making glycogen and lysis is breaking down glycogen into glucose

Which molecule is the most abundant storage form of lipid in the body?

triglyceride

What are the component parts of one triglyceride molecule?

1 glycerol 3 fatty acids

After triglyceride are catabolized into their component parts, enzymes in the cytosol convert glycerol into what molecule?

pyruvate

What process is used to catabolize fatty acids in the mitochondria?

Beta oxidation

What molecule is produced from the catabolism of fatty acids in the mitochondria?

acetyl CoA?

How many ATP molecules are produced from the catabolism of one 18-carbon fatty acid molecule?

120 ATP

Define lipogenesis

synthesis of lipids

Why are linolenic acid and linoleic acid considered essential fatty acids?

We cant synthesize them

Which group of lipoproteins carry absorbed lipids from the food we eat to the bloodstream?

Chylomicrons

Which group of lipoproteins is considered “bad cholesterol”?

LDL

Which group of lipoproteins is considered “good cholesterol”?

HDL (helpful H)

Energy sources in the order they are used

Glucose is used first, then stored glycogen, then triglycerides, then amino acids.

What two types of chemical reactions remove amine groups from amino acids during amino acid catabolism?

transamination (removal of an amino group from an amino acid and its transfer to a keto acid), deamination (removal of an amino group),

List three factors that make protein catabolism an impractical source of quick energy

Proteins are more difficult to break apart than are complex carbohydrates or lipids.

One of the by-products, ammonium ions, is toxic to cells.

Proteins form the most important structural and functional components of any cell. Extensive protein catabolism threatens homeostasis at both the cellular and system levels.

What occurs during the absorptive state? What occurs during the postabsorptive state?

In the absorptive state that follows a meal, cells absorb nutrients to be used for growth, maintenance, and energy reserves. Hours later, in the postabsorptive state, metabolic reactions are focused on maintaining the blood glucose level that meets the needs of nervous tissue

What is a ketone body? If these molecules release hydrogen ions, how does this affect the pH of the blood?

is an organic compound produced by fatty acid metabolism that dissociates in solution, releasing a hydrogen ion and lowers blood pH

High levels of ketone bodies occur during prolonged starvation. Why is this dangerous?

buffering capacities are exceeded and a dangerous drop in pH takes place called ketoacidosis

List the 5 main food groups

Proteins, fruits, grains, vegetables, and dairys

What is the difference between a complete and incomplete protein?

Contain all ESSENTIAL amino acids vs only some essential amino acids

List three reasons why minerals are important

Ions such as sodium and chloride determine the osmotic concentrations of body fluids,

need 2 more

What is the difference between a fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamin?

Dissolve in lipids or dissolve in water

Define basal metabolic rate

is a measurement of the rate at which the body expends energy while at rest to maintain vital functions

Define obesity

is defined as body weight more than 20% above the ideal weight for a given individual.

Explain what occurs during the four basic processes of heat exchange called radiation, convection, evaporation, and conduction.

Conduction is the direct transfer of energy through physical contact. Convection is heat loss to the cooler air that moves across the surface of the body, Objects warmer than the environment lose heat as radiation. When water evaporates, it changes from a liquid to a vapor. Evaporation absorbs energy

What is the final goal for both shivering- and non-shivering thermogenesis?

Shivering is increasing muscle tone and heat produced and nonshivering is releasing hormones to speed up metabolic rate through the body

What is brown fat? What makes it brown?

is thermogenic tissue with fat cells characterized by multiple small lipid droplets and numerous heme-containing mitochondria and a increased ability to generate heat

List the organs of the urinary system and briefly state their function.

Kidneys (produce urine) Ureters (transport urine to bladder) Urinary bladder (temporarily stores urine before urination) Urethra (conducts urine to exterior also semen in males)

Urination is the elimination of urine from the body. What is the medical term for urination

micturition

Define excretion and elimination

Excretion is removal of wastes from bodily fluids and elimination is discharge of these wastes out of the body

Where are the kidneys positioned in the body?

either side of the vertebral column between T12&L3

What endocrine gland sits on top of each kidney?

Adrenal gland

What condition can occur is the kidney’s suspensory fibers break or become detached?

Floating Kidney

What is the name of the prominent medial indentation in the kidney that is the entry point for the renal artery and renal nerves and the point of exit for the renal vein and the ureter?

hilum

Inside the renal capsule, the kidney has an outer and inner region. What are they called? Which region contains renal pyramids?

Outer cortex and inner medulla (has pyramids)

Which vessels deliver blood directly to capillaries supplying individual nephrons?

Afferent arterioles

What are the functional units of the kidneys called? Hint: They are the smallest structures that can carry out all the functions of the system

nephrons

What are two names given to the cup-shaped chamber that is part of the renal corpuscle?

The Glomerular Capsule or Bowmans capsule

Part of the renal corpuscle is the glomerulus. What is the glomerulus?

50 intertwined inner capillaries

Which arteriole carries blood out of the glomerulus?

Efferent arteriole

What type of capillaries are glomerular capillaries?

Fenestrated capillaries

) In which part of the nephron does filtration take place?

Renal corpsucle

In healthy individuals, filtration produces an essentially protein-free solution, known as

filtrate

What is glomerulonephritis?

inflammation of the glomeruli that impairs filtration in the kidneys

Glomerulonephritis is often an immune complex disorder. It may develop after an infection involving which genus of bacteria?

Streptococcus

What occurs during reabsorption? What occurs during secretion?

reclaimed from filtrate or secreted into filtrate from blood

What is the primary function of the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)?

Reabsorption of critical ions

What is the primary function of the distal convoluted tubule (DCT)?

reabsorb water and selected ions, as well as active secretion of undesirable substances.

The juxtaglomerular complex contains a structure called the macula densa. The cells of the macula densa act like what two type of receptors

Chemoreceptors or baroreceptors

) Juxtaglomerular cells in the juxtaglomerular complex are modified smooth muscle cells in the wall of the afferent arteriole. These cells function as baroreceptors. What do they monitor?

blood pressure in the afferent arteriole

Juxtaglomerular cells in the juxtaglomerular complex secrete which hormone?

renin

What is the function of intercalated cells of the collecting duct?

regulate the acid–base balance in the blood.

There are two types of nephrons in the kidney called cortical nephrons and juxtamedullary nephrons. What region of the kidney is most of the renal tubule found in cortical nephrons?

CORTICAL CORTEX JUXTA MEDULLA

Long, straight capillaries that parallel the juxtamedullary nephron loop are called the

vasa recta

What is the primary function of the descending limb of the nephron loop?

Reabsorption of water from tubular fluid

List three important wastes produced during metabolism

Urea, Creatinine and Uric acid

List the three distinct processes that form urine in the kidney

Filtration, reabsorption, secretion

What two transport mechanisms are used during the reabsorption of substances in the renal tubule? What process is used for reabsorption of water?

Simple diffusion or carrier proteins water uses osmosis

secretion

the transport of solutes from the peritubular fluid, across the tubular epithelium, and into the tubular fluid

Which four nutrients are not detected or are detected in very small amounts (<0.2 mg/dL) in urine from a healthy adult?

Glucose, lipids, Amino acids and proteins

that the three parts that make the filtration membrane have different size

The first part of the membrane used for filtration is called the fenestrated epithelium and has the largest pores, the second part called the basement membrane has smaller pores that the fenestrated epithelium, and the last part called the foot processes of podocytes has the smallest size pores (THESE PORE SIZES MAKE A FILTER)

What is the physical reason why glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP) is greater than hydrostatic pressure in typical systemic capillaries?

Small pores Only small plasma proteins and solutes can cross the pores

What would happen if the glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP) and the hydrostatic pressure in typical systemic capillaries were equal?

Filtration would not occur

What causes capsular hydrostatic pressure?

resistance to flow along the nephron and the conducting system

Define net hydrostatic pressure (NHP)

difference between the glomerular hydrostatic pressure and capsular hydrostatic pressure

What organic molecule is responsible for blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP)?

proteins

Define net filtration pressure (NFP).

difference between the net hydrostatic pressure and the blood colloid osmotic pressure acting across the glomerular capillaries

Define glomerular filtration rate

amount of filtrate the kidneys produce each minute