Interpersonal Attraction, Stress, and Eyewitness Testimony

Need for Relationships

Humans need close, meaningful relationships; without them, people experience loneliness, hopelessness, and helplessness. Relationships are a key predictor of happiness.

Proximity Effect (Principle of Proximity)

We form relationships with people we see and interact with frequently. Example: MIT Westgate Housing study showed friends tended to live nearby.

Functional Distance

How physical space and architecture (e.g., stairwells, mailboxes) increase opportunities for interaction.

Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure to someone or something increases liking. Exception: If initial impression is negative, repeated exposure increases dislike.

Self-Expansion Theory

We seek relationships to expand our access to knowledge, skills, and experiences, enhancing our growth.

Similarity

- We are attracted to people similar to us in values, interests, and personality.

- Predicts attraction more than complementarity does.

Perceived Similarity

Our belief that someone is similar to us has a stronger effect on attraction than actual similarity.

Familiarity

people prefer faces resembling their own; makes them feel safe and comfortable

Matching Hypothesis

People tend to partner with others of similar attractiveness, though differences can be offset by other resources (e.g., status, wealth).

Reciprocal Liking

We are more likely to be attracted to people who express liking for us, even overriding physical attraction or differences in views.

Physical Attractiveness

A major factor in attraction. The halo effect causes people to assume attractive individuals possess other positive traits. Symmetry and average faces are universally preferred.

halo effect

a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures based on their level of attractiveness

Social Exchange Theory

Relationships involve maximizing rewards and minimizing costs. The outcome depends on the balance of rewards and costs.

Comparison Level (CL)

Expectations for rewards and costs in a relationship based on past experiences.

Comparison Level for Alternatives (CLalt)

Perception of available better options outside the current relationship.

Equity Theory

People are happiest when the benefits and contributions in a relationship are balanced.

Misattribution of Arousal

Physiological arousal (e.g., fear, excitement) can be mistakenly attributed to romantic attraction.

Secure Attachment Style

Comfortable with intimacy and dependence.

Avoidant Attachment Style

Uncomfortable with closeness, emotionally distant

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Style

Craves closeness but fears abandonment.

Intimacy

Emotional closeness.

Passion

Physical/sexual attraction.

Commitment

Decision to maintain the relationship.

Liking

Intimacy only. (friendships)

Infatuation

Passion only. (sexual fling)

Empty Love

Commitment only (staying in a marriage for the children)

Romantic Love

Intimacy + Passion. (couples with strong sexual chemistry but no plans for the future)

Companionate Love

Intimacy + Commitment. (two long term friends rely on the other but have no romantic feelings)

Fatuous Love

Passion + Commitment. (couple marries quickly based on a attraction/intimacy but doesn't know much about each other)

Consummate Love

Intimacy + Passion + Commitment. (spouse feels deep emotional and physical connection, and they're committed long-term)

Love Styles (E. A. M. P. L. S)

Eros: passionate, physical (intense physical chemistry and romantic attraction)

Agape: selfless, giving love (A partner who stays devoted and caring during their spouse’s long illness.)

Mania: possessive, dependent love (Someone who constantly fears their partner will leave and becomes overly dependent.)

Pragma: logical, practical love (Choosing a partner because they share life goals and values)

Ludus: playful, game-playing love (Flirting with multiple people without seeking a serious commitment.)

Storage: love based on friendship (Best friends who slowly fall in love over time.)

Individualistic cultures

Prioritize romantic and passionate love.

Collectivistic cultures

Emphasize family involvement and companionate love.

Men (Evolutionary Theory of Attraction)

Prioritize youth and attractiveness (fertility).

Women (Evolutionary Theory of Attraction)

Prioritize resources and stability.

men agreed

When approached for casual sex, 75% of __________________; 0% of women did—highlighting evolutionary mating preferences.

Stress

Psychological and physiological response to perceived challenges.

Acute Stress

Short-term (e.g., exams).

Chronic Stress

Long-term (e.g., financial struggles).

Eustress

Positive stress (e.g., planning a wedding).

Distress

Negative stress (e.g., breakups).

Subjective Stress

Your perception of how stressful an event is—a better predictor of health than the event itself.

Fight or Flight Response

Biological reaction to threats; adaptive in short bursts but harmful when chronic (linked to elevated cortisol and immune system suppression).

Tend and Befriend Response

Coping strategy involving nurturing and seeking social support, more common in women.

Diathesis-Stress Model

Predisposition to develop an illness but it may remain dormant unless triggered by stress

Cohen's Cold Study

Higher stress levels correlated with greater susceptibility to the common cold.

Resilience

The ability to recover from stress.

Perceived Control

Belief in control over events reduces stress and improves health outcomes.

Locus of Control

Internal: Belief that you control outcomes → better coping and health.

External: Belief that external forces control outcomes → higher stress.

Reframing

Finding positive meaning in stressful or traumatic experiences.

Pennebaker's Research

Writing about stressful events improves mental and physical health.

Eyewitness Testimony Stage 1

Acquisition/Encoding: Initial perception and attention. Issues: Poor viewing, weapons focus, own-race bias, stress.

Eyewitness Testimony Stage 2

Storage: Memory retention over time. Issues: Memory fades, reconstructive memory, misleading questions.

Reconstructive Memory

memories that can be influenced and rewritten by new information

Eyewitness Testimony Stage 3

Retrieval: Recalling stored information. Issues: Relative judgment, instruction bias, source monitoring errors.

instruction bias

influencing criminal identification by implying the criminal is there or by confirming their choice

Relative Judgment

Witness compares lineup members to one another and the person who looks most like the perpetrator is identified

Weapons Focus

Attention drawn to weapons over faces.

Own-Race Bias

Better memory for faces of one's own race.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice unexpected stimuli.

Confidence ≠ Accuracy

Confidence in memory does not always reflect accuracy.

Improving Eyewitness Accuracy

Use sequential lineups. Inform witnesses the perpetrator may not be present. Use neutral administrators. Include fillers matching the suspect's description.

False Memories

Vivid memories of events that never happened.

Recovered Memories

Memories of past events that are recalled after being forgotten or repressed—controversial due to possible implantation.

Loftus' Lost in the Mall Study

25% of participants falsely remembered being lost in a mall as a child.