intro to psych: exam 3

what is personality?

Personality is a person’s consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

self-schema

mental framework of beliefs about oneself

working self-concept

the aspect of the self-concept that is activated in a specific context, influencing one's thoughts and behavior.

how is self concept related to self serving bias

Self-serving bias protects self-esteem by attributing success to oneself and failure to external factors.

self-esteem

person’s overall sense of self-worth.

what aspects of self are emphasized by individualist cultures

Independence and personal achievement.

what aspects of self are emphasized by collectivist cultures

Group harmony and social roles.

theoretical perspectives view personality

Psychoanalytic

Unconscious forces

theoretical perspectives view personality

Trait

stable characteristics.

theoretical perspectives view personality

Humanistic

Personal growth.

theoretical perspectives view personality

Social-cognitive

Environment and cognition.

Freud’s psychodynamic theory:

Personality is shaped by unconscious motives, childhood experiences, and internal conflicts.

first level of consciousness

Conscious

Thoughts and feelings we are aware of.

second level of consciousness

Preconscious

Memories and information that can be easily recalled.

third level of consciousness

unconscious

hidden thoughts, desires, and memoires beyond awareness

Id

instinctual drives; seeks pleasure.

ego

Balances id and superego; uses reality.

superego

Moral standards; strives for perfection.

Psychosexual stages and fixation:

Stages

Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital.

Psychosexual stages and fixation

Fixation

Stuck behaviors from unresolved conflicts.

Purpose of defense mechanisms:

To protect the ego from anxiety.

Maslow’s humanistic theory:

Personality is driven by self-actualization and needs fulfillment.

Rogers’s person-centered approach:

focus on personal growth

Rogers’s person-centered unconditional positive regard:

Acceptance regardless of actions.

Rotter’s personality theory:

Locus of control

Belief in personal vs. external control.

Rotter’s personality theory:

Expectancy

Prediction of outcomes based on behavior.

Bandura’s social-cognitive theory:

Personality = behavior + cognition + environment (reciprocal determinism).

Eysenck’s three traits:

Extraversion

Sociability

Eysenck’s three traits

Neuroticism

Emotional instability.

Eysenck’s three traits

Psychoticism

Aggressiveness

Big Five personality traits (OCEAN):

• O: Openness – creativity.

• C: Conscientiousness – organization.

• E: Extraversion – sociability.

• A: Agreeableness – compassion.

• N: Neuroticism – anxiety.

Rorschach test

inkblot intrerpretation

TAT test

storytelling from images

Other personality assessments

• Self-reports (e.g., MMPI).

• Behavioral observations.

• Interviews.

• Objective tests (e.g., Myers-Briggs).

• Biological assessments.

Social psychology

The study of how people think, feel, and behave in social situations.

Attributions

Explanations for why people behave in certain ways.

Personal attributions

Blaming behavior on someone's traits or personality.

Situational attributions

Blaming behavior on external factors.

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overemphasize personal traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining others’ behavior.

Actor/observer bias

Blaming one's own actions on situations but blaming others' actions on their personality.

Self-serving bias

The tendency to credit success to oneself but blame failure on external factors.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When a belief or expectation influences behavior, making the belief come true.

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward a group.

Discrimination

Acting unfairly toward a group.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group.

Cognitive dissonance theory

States that people feel discomfort when their actions conflict with their beliefs.

Central route of persuasion

Uses logical arguments and evidence, leading to lasting attitude change.

Peripheral route of persuasion

Uses superficial cues, leading to temporary attitude change.

Social facilitation

When people perform better on simple tasks in front of others.

Social loafing

When people put in less effort in group tasks.

Deindividuation

Losing self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations.

Groupthink

When a group values harmony over making the best decision.

Conformity

Changing behavior to match group norms.

Normative influence

Conforming to be liked or accepted.

Informational influence

Conforming because you believe the group is right.

Compliance

Agreeing to a request.

Foot-in-the-door

Starting with a small request, then making a larger one.

Door-in-the-face

Starting with a large request, then asking for something smaller.

Low-ball technique

Getting agreement first, then adding extra conditions.

Milgram's obedience research

Showed that people obey authority figures, even if it means harming others.

Diffusion of responsibility

When people in a group feel less personal responsibility to act.

Interpersonal attraction factors

Physical attractiveness, similarity, proximity, and reciprocity.

Passionate love

Intense and emotional love.

Companionate love

Deep, affectionate love based on trust.

What is developmental psychology?

The study of how people grow and change throughout life, including physical, cognitive, and social development.

What is prenatal development?

The process of growth from conception to birth, occurring in three stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal.

What is a teratogen?

A teratogen is any substance (e.g., drugs, chemicals) that harms a fetus during pregnancy.

examples of teratogen

1. Alcohol: Causes fetal alcohol syndrome, leading to cognitive and growth issues.

2. Nicotine: Causes low birth weight and breathing problems.

What is attachment?

An emotional bond between an infant and caregiver, critical for security and relationships.

What does Harry Harlow’s research say about contact comfort?

Harlow showed physical comfort is more important than food for emotional development. Monkeys preferred soft cloth “mothers.”

What is secure attachment?

• Definition: Confidence that a caregiver will meet needs.

• Separation: Infant shows distress.

• Reunion: Infant is comforted and resumes exploration.

What is ambivalent attachment?

• Definition: Uncertainty about caregiver reliability.

• Separation: Intense distress.

• Reunion: Seeks comfort but also resists it.

What is avoidant attachment?

• Definition: Avoiding caregiver due to unmet needs.

• Separation: Little distress.

• Reunion: Avoids or ignores caregiver.

What is theory of mind?

Understanding that others have different thoughts, feelings, and perspectives.

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

Sensorimotor (0–2 years)

Develop object permanence; rely on senses.

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

Preoperational (2–7 years)

Use symbols; show egocentrism; lack conservation.

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

Concrete Operational (7–11 years)

Think logically about concrete things; understand conservation.

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

Formal Operational (12+ years)

Think abstractly and solve complex problems.

What is puberty?

Physical and hormonal changes that lead to sexual maturity.

at what age does the prefrontal cortex finish developing, and what effect does it have on adolescent behavior?

25-27

affects decision-making and impluse control

What are primary sex characteristics?

Reproductive organs (e.g., ovaries, testes).

What are secondary sex characteristics?

Physical changes during puberty not directly related to reproduction (e.g., body hair, voice changes).

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy):

Trust caregivers.

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Autonomy vs. Shame (Toddler):

Gain independence.

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood):

Start activities and take initiative.

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle Childhood):

Master skills and feel competent.

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence):

Build personal identity.

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adult):

Form close relationships.

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adult):

Contribute to society.

Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age):

Reflect on life with satisfaction or regret.