Unit II - Genetics

Gastrulation

Gastrulation

________: a process that involves the rearrangement of the blastula into a three- layered embryo called a gastrula.

Canadian goose

________- males produce sperm and females produce eggs.

Organogenesis

________: the process by which cells continue to differentiate, producing organs from the three embryonic germ layers.

Cleavage

________: the rapid mitotic cell division of the zygote that occurs immediately after fertilization.

Non disjunction

________: the failure of homologous chromosomes to move to opposite poles of the cell during meiosis.

Sister chromatid

________: identical copy of a single chromosome that remains attached to the original chromosome at the centromere.

Fragmentation

________: method of asexual reproduction in which a piece /body fragment of the parent organism develops into a mature individual.

Nuclear membranes

________ begin to form around the chromosomes at each end of the cell and begin to divide.

Haploid

________ (n): cells with one set of chromosomes that are produced by meiosis, usually gametes.

GMOs

________ often carry genes that originate in a different species → exhibit some of the characteristics of the gene donor species.

Meiosis

________ produce gametes which undergo no further cell division before fertilization → only haploid cells in animals.

Interphase

________: portion of the cell cycle between mitotic divisions when the genetic material (in form of chromatin) is duplicated.

Heterozygous

________: describes an individual that can carry two different alleles for a given characteristic.

Karyotype

________: the chromosomes of an individual that have been sorted and arranged according to size and type.

Tetrads

________ migrate toward the center of the cell and align their centromeres across the middle of the cell.

Chromosomes

________ line up single file along the equator while remaining attached by their centromeres.

GM

________ bananas- with genes for the production of a hepatitis vaccine.

Heterochromatin

________- areas where nucleosomes are more tightly compacted and where DNA is inactive.

genetic diversity

Used in the breeding of livestock, pets, captive wild animals, and even honeybees, to enhance ________ and reduce the costs involved.

Sexual reproduction

________ involved the formation of haploid gametes and fertilization to form a zygote.

G2

________- growth, and preparation for cell division, DNA is checked for error.

DNA

________ is replicated and is un- condensed in the nucleus.

G0

________- temporarily /permanently leave the cell cycle and enter a rest phase.

Asexual reproduction

________: the production of offspring from a single parent, the genetic makeup of the offspring is identical to that of the parent.

Males

________ are usually sterile and exhibit some feminine body characteristics.

unequal cytoplasmic substances

The ________ caused by the division of the egg may influence their subsequent development.

Gametogenesis

________: the production of gametes in animals.

random assortment

→ plants- cells differ in genetic content of mitochondria depending on the ________ → some may contain defective green → results in complex patterns of inheritance, distribution, and disease- causing influence within the cells of the individual.

Mendel

________ removed the male anthers from the flowers of true- breeding plants → pollinated other true- breeding plants with pollen → resulting in different hybrid conditions.

safflower

Bacteria, ________, and yeast- to contain copies of the human genes that code for insulin.

centrosomes

The ________ (or Microtubule Organizing Centers) move apart to the opposite poles → microtubules (spindle fibers) develops from each MTOC.

Sporophyte

________ makes haploid spores → grows into a gametophyte → make haploid gametes → form a diploid ________ after fertilization.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

DNA (________): a molecule that carries genetic information in cells, and contains instructions for making all the proteins.

Earthworms

________- hermaphrodites with both sperm and egg.

Inversion

________: a fragment of chromosome attaches in the reverse orientation.

Punnett squares

________ are used to predict the probability of different genotypes and phenotypes that may result from a given cross.

Synapsis

________: the physical pairing up of homologous chromosomes during Prophase I.

Biotechnology

________: the use and modification of organisms for applications in engineering, industries, and medicine.

Phenotype

________- the alleles that are expressed determine an individuals ________.

Independent assortment

________ may occur- chromosomes line up and separate randomly to increase genetic variation.

Genome

________: An organisms complete set of DNA (including genes and non- coding regions)

microtubules

The ________ connected to the chromosomes shorter → chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles.

GM pigs

________- with genes involved in the production of omega- 3 fatty acids.

Fertilization

________: the formation of a zygote by joining together two gametes.

Cytokinesis

________ occurs and cells divide into 4 haploid daughter cells.

Monosomy

________: a chromosomal abnormality in which there is a single chromosome in place of a homologous pair.

Hybrid

________: the offspring of two different true- breeding plants.

Euchromatin

________- Loose DNA bound to nucleosomes → actively being transcribed to make proteins.

Genotype

________: the genetic makeup of an individual.

P generation

________: the parent plants used in a cross.

Genetics

the branch of biology dealing with heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

a molecule that carries genetic information in cells, and contains instructions for making all the proteins

Genome

An organisms complete set of DNA (including genes and non-coding regions)

DNA is found free-floating in the cytoplasm

prokaryotic cells

Nucleosomes

the DNA-histones complexes formed from the coiling of DNA around bundles of eight/nine histone proteins

Euchromatin

Loose DNA bound to nucleosomes → actively being transcribed to make proteins

Heterochromatin

areas where nucleosomes are more tightly compacted and where DNA is inactive

Chromosomes

formed by condensing and compacting chromatin during cell division, made of sister chromatids joined at the centromere bound by cohesion proteins

Polyploid

having more than two sets of chromosomes, many plants are polyploids

human

46 chromosomes/ 23 pairs

dog

78 chromosomes/ 39 pairs

banana

22 chromosomes/ 11 pairs

Asexual reproduction

the production of offspring from a single parent, the genetic makeup of the offspring is identical to that of the parent

Sexual reproduction

the production of offspring from the fusion of two sex cells, the genetic makeup of the offspring is different from that of either parent

Fragmentation

method of asexual reproduction in which a piece/body fragment of the parent organism develops into a mature individual

Mitosis

the process by which a eukaryotic cell divides the genetic material in its nucleus into two new identical nuclei

Interphase

portion of the cell cycle between mitotic divisions when the genetic material (in form of chromatin) is duplicated

Sister chromatid

identical copy of a single chromosome that remains attached to the original chromosome at the centromere

Cytokinesis

the process in which a eukaryotic cell divides its cytoplasm into two new daughter cells

Synthesis

chromosome duplication/DNA Replication

G2

growth, and preparation for cell division, DNA is checked for error

*G0

temporarily/permanently leave the cell cycle and enter a rest phase

Mitosis

a division of the nucleus and genetic material

Animal

Cleavage Furrow

Microtubules

protein fiber responsible for various types of movement in the cell, including the movement of chromosome during mitosis

Mitotic Spindle

macromolecular machine that segregates the chromosomes to two daughter cells during mitosis, also include other microtubules that overlap at the center of the spindle and do not attach to the chromosomes

Astral Microtubule

the shorter microtubules that anchor centrosomes at the poles of the cell

Kinetochore Microtubules

the longer microtubules that attach to the chromosomes

Cloning

the process of producing one individual that is genetically identical to another using a single cell/tissue

Biotechnology

the use and modification of organisms for applications in engineering, industries, and medicine

Genetically Modified Organism

an organism in which the genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques

bacteria, safflower, and yeast

to contain copies of the human genes that code for insulin

GM goats

with genes from golden orb spiders

GM bananas

with genes for the production of a hepatitis vaccine

GM pigs

with genes involved in the production of omega-3 fatty acids

Fertilization

the formation of a zygote by joining together two gametes

Zygote

a cell produced by the fusion of two gametes

willow tree

the male tree produces male pollen grains and the female tree produces female eggs

giant clam

young male clams produce sperm and change to female and produce egg cells once maturity

→ external fertilization

sex cells are released in the open water

Earthworms

hermaphrodites with both sperm and egg

Canadian goose

males produce sperm and females produce eggs

Haploid (n)

cells with one set of chromosomes that are produced by meiosis, usually gametes

Meiosis

a two-stage cell division in which the resulting daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell, resulting in the formation of gametes/spores

Homologous chromosomes

matching pairs of chromosomes, similar in size and carry information of the same genes

Mitosis

chromosome number of the daughter cells is the same as that of the parent cell (46) and results in 2 daughter cells

Meiosis

the chromosome number of the daughter cell is half that of the parent cell (23) and results in 4 daughter cells

→ eg

a human cell containing 46 chromosomes (diploid) that undergoes meiosis will produce gametes that have 23 chromosomes each (haploid)

Synapsis

the physical pairing up of homologous chromosomes during Prophase I

independent assortment may occur

chromosomes line up and separate randomly to increase genetic variation