psych 230: research methods exam 2

define nominal

measurement that has a clear number; categorical/qualitative data

nominal examples

eye color, ice cream flavors, and nationality.

diff between probability & non-probability sampling

probability sampling: all population members have an equal chance to be selected as long as the population diversity is represented

non-probability sampling: all the populations don't have the same chance to be selected (leaving out ppl)

Probability sampling pros & cons

pros: Good to get a more accurate selection of people that can be applied to the real world.

cons: Might not be as readily available and harder for short time research

Non-probability sampling pros & cons

Pro: Easier to collect samples when don't have the necessary resources.

Con: The downside is that the experiment's results can’t be applied to the real world.

define construct validity

extent to which scores on measure represent the variable or construct they are intended to

list types of validity

1) face validity
2) content validity
3) criterion validity
4) discriminant validity

define face validity

extent to which variable measures what it is supposed to measure

define Content Validity

extent to which a test samples the behavior that we are interested in; extent to which a measure covers all aspects of the construct of interest

define Criterion Validity

extent to which the measure is related to the outcome & other variables

define Discriminant Validity

Scores on the measures are not related to other measures that are theoretically different.

define confound

external variables that aren't controlled, decreased validity of results

confound ex

This might be the age when looking at obesity and heart disease

list 4 threats to construct validity

1)Reaction
2) socially desirable
3)demand
4)expectancy

Reaction

how people might react differently when they know they are being used for a study

socially desirable

subjects acting as they feel like is a desirable reaction

demand

When subjects try to make sense of the experiment or get inside knowledge

Expectancy

Researchers may be biased in what they are looking at and what they expect to see

Describe single variable research

used for simple experiments, and generally just want to look and learn more about it

single variable research ex

how accurate are first impressions

define ordinal

ranking order w/ no equal intervals

ordinal ex

movie ratings, order of favorite snacks, rank stuff in order

define reliability

extent of which the scores on a measure are consistent across time & multiple items on the same measure

assess reliability by?

redo experiment & compare results

types of reliability

1) reliability over time
2) reliability across items
3) reliability across researchers

Reliability over time (test-retest reliability)

How well your results should be through a specific time period

Reliability across items (internal consistency)

the extent to which items on a multiple item measure are consistent with each other. (questions should have some sort of connection to each other)

Reliability between researchers (interrater reliability)

How consistent the observers are with their judgments.

define statistical validity

how well your results are accurate and can research a conclusion on

statistical validity ex

standard error, standard deviation, and t-test.

list threats to internal validity (MRS.SMITH)

Maturation
Regression of the mean
selection of subjects
selection by maturation interactions
mortality
instrumentation
testing
history

define Maturation

a change over time that may change the results for the simple reason of growing

Maturation ex

a person growing up will probably change answers when they are older or have more experiences.

define Mortality

Possible absence of subjects for whatever reason that can include death or not wanting to finish the study

Mortality ex

experiment takes a long time, so some people are unable to continue the time commitment of the study

define Instrumentation

Change in measuring instrument or the use of instruments that might include proper calibration which can threaten validity

Instrumentation ex

using older data might’ve been collected with different machinery and on different units.

define Regression of the Mean

Only taking the top 10% or bottom 10% to explain your results; the tendency that participants who receive extreme scores when tested, tend to have less extreme scores on subsequent retesting even in the absence of any treatment effects.

Regression of the Mean ex

A person who scores an extreme value is less likely to do so if given the experiment again.

define Selection of subjects

Any bias in selecting and assigning participants to groups that results in systematic differences between the participants in each group

Selection of subjects ex

non-random sample selection, cherrypicking certain people because it’s convenient or for other reasons

define selection by maturation interaction

The treatment and no-treatment groups, although similar at one point, would have grown apart (developed differently) even if no treatment had been administered.

selection by maturation interaction ex

Boys and girls in 4th grade vs in 10th grade will be different.

define testing

When participants are repeatedly tested, changes in test scores may be more due to practice or knowledge about the test procedure gained from earlier experiences rather than any treatment effects

testing ex

someone takes the same math test twice, gets a better score on the 2nd attempt.

define history

Extraneous events occurring during the course of the experiment that may affect the participants’ responses on the dependent measure.

history ex

social upheaval may cause change in attitudes or behaviors in people.

Describe cross-sectional research

comparing two pre-existing groups of subjects subjects to specific variables but do not alter such subjects.
in medical research exposing subjects to diseases would be highly unethical
Instead...take subjects that may already have the characteristics they are looking for and compare them

cross-sectional research ex

-In medical research exposing subjects to diseases would be highly unethical.
-Instead take subjects that may already have the characteristics they are looking for and compare them

define survey research

done by sending out questionnaires and relying on individuals to self-report their answers.

survey research characteristics

-relies a lot on the honesty of the individuals.
-survey design is essential because it can affect the results.

define interval measurement

meaning, there is order, and the difference between two values is meaningful because there are equal intervals between each score, but there is no true zero

interval measurement ex

temperature, pH, likert scale

Explain correlational research

does not involve the manipulation of variables.

distinguishes correlation research from experimental research

It uses existing data or survey data that is collected. It is easier to do than experimental research and relies highly on participants' honesty. Correlation research does not measure causation, whereas experimental research can test for causation.

Explain what internal validity is

degree to which the changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable, and not by something else.

explain why experiments are considered to be high in internal validity.

how much you can say that your results are due to your manipulations and not any other outside factors.

explain context effect

how the surrounding things affect how one might answer

context effect ex

include a survey with answers that look more off than others, and also the order of questions in the survey can impact how people answer

list ex nonexperimental research

correlational research, archival research, single variable, etc.

distinguish nonexperimental research from experimental research, and give several examples.

There is no manipulation of variables, which makes it different from experimental research.

Explain what a psychological construct

tool used to facilitate understanding of human behavior; observable complex traits, behavioral & internal processes w/ multiple operational definitions;

psychological construct ex

intelligence, self-esteem, and depression

define ratio measurement

includes name, natural order, equal intervals, and a true zero

ratio measurement ex

height, the kelvin scale, and enzyme activity.

strengths and weaknesses of qualitative research in psychology compared with quantitative research?

Qualitative research brings a deeper understanding than just quantitative data such as numbers. The numbers bring the data to the experiment, and it might be easier to conclude with the numbers.

manipulation of the independent variable & importance

involves the researcher changing that variable and viewing how the dependent variable changes in response to it.
-important to see if there is any causation when changing the independent variable related to the dependent variable

manipulation of extraneous variables & importance

ensures that the trend that the researchers are observing is only due to the manipulation of the independent variable, and not by any outside influence.
-increases validity.

Explain external validity

extent our results can be applied or generalized to the real world

two external validity types

Type 1: Ecological -generalizability of the results from one setting to another
Type 2: Population -the ability to generalize from your sample to the population of interest

Explain when a researcher might choose to conduct nonexperimental research instead of experimental research

When choosing a nonexperimental, time, money, and resources are all factors

list types of observations

1)Naturalistic Observation
2)Participant Observation
3)Structured Observation

Naturalistic Observation

observing behaviors in the environment in which they occur.

Participant Observation

researchers observe behaviors in the environments in which they occur, but researchers are active participants in the situation.

Structured Observation

gathering quantitative data on a set of predetermined behaviors
Ex: how many times do bowlers laugh or make an angry face after bowling?