Psych Exam 1

Modern Definition Of Psychology

Scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Wilhem Wundt

established first psychology lab at University of Leipzig Germany 1879

Margaret Washburn

First woman to receive a psychology PHD, wrote influential book (The Animal Mind)

Nature-Nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science says both heredity and environment play a role

Behaviorism

the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only

Natural Selection

nature selects traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in specific environment

Three levels of analysis in Biopsychosocial approach

approach that incorporates- biological, psychological, social-cultural

Biological Influences

genetic mutations, genes responding to environment

Psychological Influences

learned fears and other learned expectations, emotional responses, cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations

Social-culutral influences

presence of others, peer/group influences

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Scientific attitude

curiosity, skepticism, humility

Scientific Method

Make an observation, ask a question, do background research, form a hypothesis, conduct a experiment, analyze data, draw a conclusion

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Case Study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Surveys

Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions.

We want to "generalize" results of a single study to the larger population, how is this accomplished?

Random Sampling

Random Sampling

each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, goal is to produce an unbiased or representative sample

Representative sample

randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects

Broad goals of research

to describe, explain, predict, and control or apply behavior and mental processes

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

+ correlation

as values in one variable gets bigger, so do values in the other variable

- correlation

One variable goes up while other goes down

numerical value

tells you the strength of the relationship

Why cant correlation research prove that there is a cause-effect relationship between two variables?

Because correlation does not cause causation.

independant variable

the variable that is controlled or altered by the researcher to examine its direct effects on a separate, observed outcome.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

What is an experiment and how do experiments help researchers identify cause-effect relationships?

A controlled test of hypotheses, a researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

example of positive correlation

Height and Shoe Size: Taller people generally have larger shoe sizes. As height increases, shoe size increases.

correlation vs experiment

In correlational studies a researcher looks for associations among naturally occurring variables, whereas in experimental studies the researcher introduces a change and then monitors its effects.

Double Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are uniformed about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Random Assignment

placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable

mean

average of all data

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

When data is skewed, which measure of central tendency is most affected?

The Mean

variation

Any difference between individuals of the same species.

What principles should we keep in mind when deciding whether its okay to generalize the results from one sample to the larger population?

only when the sample is representative, large enough, and collected through random selection.

What are some of the important points regarding research ethics in psychology?

Informed Consent, Participants should receive enough information to let them decide freely whether to participate, freedom to withdraw at any time, minimize discomfort/harm, confidentiality

What types of questions interest behavior geneticists?

why individuals differ in their actions, personalities, and cognitive abilities.

Chromosome

a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Gene

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait

Identical twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal twins

Twins who develop from separate eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

How do behavior geneticists use twin studies and adoption studies to understand the effects of environment and heredity? What do the results of these studies tell us?

to separate and measure the relative contributions of genetics (heredity) and upbringing (environment) to human behavior and traits. These studies prove that while genetics heavily influence our intelligence, personality, and mental health, they do not act alone; instead, our personal experiences and environments constantly interact with our DNA to shape who we ultimately become.

Why does the stability of our temperament provides evidence for role of biology in development?

Because it shows up before the environment has a chance to change us, and it sticks around for life.

Gene-environment interaction

situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed

How do evolutionary psychologists use natural selection to explain behavior tendencies?

They argue that just like natural selection shaped our physical bodies, it also shaped our brains to favor behaviors that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce.

Critiques of evolutionary perspective?

• humans engage in sexual behaviour for other reasons than procreation

How do cultural norms affect our behavior?

Cultural norms are rules for accepted and expected behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and values. Across places and over time cultures differ in their norms. Humans share a capacity for culture, and that shared capacity enables our striking human diversity by influencing our everyday attitudes and behaviors.

Individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

Collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

Nueron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Cell body

the cell's life support center

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons, will influence whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

Antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

Some important neurotransmitters

acetylcholine- Enables muscle action, learning and memory. Dopamine- Influences movement, learning, attention. Serotonin- Affects mood, hunger

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Three types of neurons that transmit information through nervous system

Sensory Neurons which carry info from body's tissue and sensory receptors to brain/spinal cord, Motor Neurons which carry outgoing information from the brain/spinal cord to muscles and glands, Interneurons which are neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs

Neural Networks

interconnected neural cells

Techniques psychologists use to study the brain

MRI, EEG, FMRI

How does the endocrine system transport its messages?

by releasing chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Thalamus

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

Why is the cortex and important part of the human brain?

The cortex is so much of who we are including our thinking, hearing, seeing, occurs within the cortex

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Sensory Cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

What happens when a person has frontal lobe damage?

disrupts the "control center" of the brain, causing dramatic changes in their personality, decision-making, and emotional control.

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

What have we learned from research with split brain patients?

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Brain Plasticity

The capacity for the brain to alter its structure and function.

Corpus Callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

What have we learned from research with split brain patients?

the two halves of our brain function like two independent minds, each specializing in completely different tasks

Right side of brain vs Left side

Right: Visuospatial skills: Reading maps, recognizing faces, and imagining shapes, Left: Language: Speech, writing, and understanding words.