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Automation Control System
A system capable of controlling a process with minimal human assistance, initiating, adjusting, measuring variables, and stopping the process to achieve the desired output.
Mechatronics
The integration of mechanical engineering with electronics, electrical circuits, control, and software engineering. Industrial Automation:Using technology to accomplish tasks with minimal human intervention. Robotics:The use of specialized robots in industrial settings for automation.
Indusrtial Automation
Using technology to achieve tasks with minimal human intervention
Industrial Robotics
Use of specialized robots in manufacturing and other industrial settings
LabVIEW
Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench, a graphical programming environment for data acquisition, instrument control, and industrial automation.
Features of LabVIEW 2020
Graphical Programming, Rapid Prototyping and Development, Hardware Support, and Advanced Data Visualization and Analysis
LabVIEW programs-subroutines
Virtual Instruments (VIs) in LabVIEW that are modular programming units designed to execute specific tasks or algorithms.
Components of LabVIEW
Front Panel (user interface), Block Diagram (graphical code), Connector Pane (interface for connecting VIs), with additional elements like Icons, Controls Palette, Tools Palette, Project Explorer, etc.
LINX
An open-source LabVIEW add-on for interfacing with microcontrollers and single-board computers, simplifying connections to platforms like Arduino and Raspberry Pi for data acquisition and device control.
LINX Capabilities
Use built in sensors VI for immediate data acquisition
Access a wide range of device capabilities
Ideal for prototyping and educational purposes
Sensor
Devices that detect and respond to changes in physical stimuli, such as heat, light, motion, pressure, or moisture. They convert these changes into usable output for measurement, monitoring, or control purposes
Transducer
A device that converts one form of energy into another, facilitating communication between physical and electronic systems. Examples include thermocouples for temperature, piezoelectric sensors for pressure, and microphones for sound. Transducers can be categorized as sensors (converting physical quantities to electrical output) or actuators (converting electrical input to physical output).
Ampere’s Law
States that the magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor is proportional to the current and encircles the conductor. It helps understand the magnetic field produced by current flow, crucial in designing electric motors, transformers, and sensors. In mechatronics, it aids in predicting the strength and direction of magnetic fields generated by current in devices.
Faraday’s Law of Induction
Asserts that a change in the magnetic environment of a wire coil induces an electromotive force (emf) in the coil, generating a current if the circuit is closed. Lenz’s Law ensures that the induced current opposes the change in magnetic flux, crucial in energy transfer in transformers and power generation in electric generators.
Some factors in choosing a sensor
Environmental Factors, Economic Factors and Sensor Characteristics
Environmental Factors
External conditions that impact the operation of a sensor, such as temperature, humidity, and exposure to chemicals.
Economic Factors
Considerations related to the cost, availability, maintenance expenses, and lifetime of a sensor.
Sensor Characteristics
Technical specifications of a sensor including accuracy, range, resolution, response time, and stability.
Two types of Automation System Inputs
Digital and Analog Inputs
Digital Inputs (DI)
Binary signals represented as "ON" or "OFF" used in automation systems.
Analog Inputs (AI)
Signals that vary continuously over a range and can represent multiple values in automation systems.
Push-button
A momentary or non-latching switch that controls aspects of a machine or process.
Biased Switches (momentary)
Buttons that automatically return to their starting position after being pressed due to an internal spring mechanism
Un-Biased buttons (latching)
These push buttons remain in their activated state after being pressed and released. They do not have a mechanism that automatically returns them to their initial position.
Normally Open (NO)
The contacts are open when the button is not pressed
Normally Closed (NC)
The contacts are closed when the button is not pressed
NEMA
National Electrical Manufacturers Association, an organization that develops standards for electrical equipment.
Momentary Contact Push-Button
Single Circuit
Double Circuit
Mushroom Head
Wobble Stick
Single Circuit
NO (Normally Open): Activates a circuit when pressed. NC (Normally Closed): Deactivates a circuit when pressed.
Double Circuit
NO (Normally Open): Activates two circuits when pressed.
NC (Normally Closed): Deactivates two circuits when pressed.
Mushroom Head
Indicates an emergency stop button
Wobble stick
Represents a joystick-like actuator for multidirectional control
Maintained Contact Push Buttons
Two Single Circuits
One Double Circuit
Two Single Circuits
Two separate buttons that maintain their respective circuit states.
One Double Circuits
A single button that maintains two circuit states
Illuminated Push Bittons
Double Circuit with Illumination: Indicates a push-button that lights up when its double circuit is engaged.
Limit Switches
Normally Open (NO): Contacts close, current flows when activated.
Held Closed: Contacts stay closed, maintaining current flow until released.
Normally Closed (NC): Contacts open, current stops when activated.
Held Open: Contact stays open, interrupting current flow until released.
Foot Switches
NO (Normally Open): Contacts close, activates circuit on press.
NC (Normally Closed): Contacts open, deactivates circuit on press.
Pressure and Vacuum Switches
NO (Normally Open): Contacts close, engages circuit when pressed.
NC (Normally Closed): Contacts open, disengages circuit when pressed.
Liquid Level Switches
NO (Normally Open): Contacts close, triggers on high level.
NC (Normally Closed): Contacts open, resets on high level.
Temperature-Actuated Switches
NO (Normally Open): Contacts close, circuit completes with heat increase.
NC (Normally Closed): Contacts open, circuit breaks with heat increase.
Flow Switches
NO (Normally Open): Contacts close, engages circuit with flow. o NC (Normally Closed): Contacts open, disengages circuit with flow
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
A transducer that measures linear displacement by converting mechanical motion into an electrical signal through electromagnetic coupling.
Strain Gauge
Measures deformation by changing its electrical resistance in response to applied strain, allowing for precise detection of strain through voltage changes.
Wheatstone Bridge
A circuit used for precise resistance measurements, where a strain gauge can be incorporated to measure small changes in resistance accurately.
Galvanometer
Device that meatures small electric currents
RTD
Resistance Temperature Detector is a sensor that measures temperature based on the change in electrical resistance of metals like platinum with temperature variations.
Thermocouple
A temperature sensor consisting of two different metal wires joined at one end to measure temperature based on the voltage produced due to the thermoelectric effect when the junction experiences a temperature change.
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
A circuit used with RTDs to enhance accuracy by compensating for lead wire resistance and other sources of error in resistance measurement.
Seebeck Effect
The principle behind thermocouples where a voltage is generated when two different conductors form a circuit and have junctions at different temperatures.
Cold Junction Compensation (CJC)
A technique used to adjust for the temperature of the cold junction in thermocouples to ensure accurate temperature measurements.
Accelerometer
A sensor that measures acceleration forces along its sensitive axes, designed to be insensitive to motion or forces perpendicular to those axes.
Sensitivity to Axes
The sensitivity of an accelerometer is aligned with one or more axes, labeled as the X, Y, and Z axes. Each axis corresponds to a direction along which the accelerometer can measure acceleration.
Uniaxial Accelerometer
An accelerometer designed to measure acceleration in one axis.
Biaxial Accelerometer
An accelerometer designed to measure acceleration in two axes.
Triaxial Accelerometer
An accelerometer designed to measure acceleration in three axes.
Orthogonal Insensitivity
In accelerometers, orthogonal insensitivity means the sensor is designed to be insensitive to acceleration forces not aligned with its sensitive axis or axes.
Light Sensors
Devices that detect light intensity and are composed of photoconductive materials like photoresistors, photodiodes, or phototransistors.
Photoresistor (LDR)
A light-sensitive variable resistor where resistance decreases as light intensity increases.
Photodiodes
Semiconductor devices that convert light into current.
Phototransistors
Semiconductor devices similar to photodiodes but provide greater sensitivity and amplification of the electrical signal.
Magnetic Sensors
Devices that convert changes in magnetic fields into electrical signals to measure parameters like current, speed, position, and displacement.
Hall Effect Sensor
A transducer that uses Hall elements to produce a voltage directly proportional to the strength of a magnetic field perpendicular to the flow of electric current.
Hall Effect Principle
The principle where a voltage (Hall voltage) is generated when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the flow of electric current in a conductor.
Common Applications of Hall Effect Sensors
Proximity sensing, positioning, speed detection, current sensing, brushless DC electric motors, and industrial automation.
Photogates
Sensors that detect the presence of an object by measuring interruptions in an infrared light beam, used in counting applications and determining the period of periodic motion.
Infrared Beam
A beam of light emitted by the transmitter of a photogate that is temporarily blocked when an object passes through the U-shaped gap.
Vernier Photogate
A device engineered for precise timing of interruptions of an infrared beam by objects passing through, enabling accurate measurement of time intervals.
Differential Pressure Sensors
Devices that measure the difference in pressure between two points, crucial for applications requiring monitoring pressure gradients.
Absolute Pressure Sensors
Devices that measure pressure relative to a perfect vacuum, essential for applications needing absolute pressure values.
Pressure Sensors
Devices that measure pressure or force exerted by fluids or gases, crucial for systems interacting with fluids or gases.
Strain Gauge
A type of pressure sensor where deformation of a diaphragm changes electrical resistance to indicate pressure.
Piezoresistive
A type of pressure sensor where mechanical stress alters resistive properties of a material to measure pressure.
MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems)
Pressure sensors utilizing microfabricated diaphragms and sensors to detect pressure through minute physical changes.
Signal Conditioning
The process of modifying an analog signal to make it compatible with the next processing stage, involving converting, scaling, or filtering the signal.
Operational Amplifiers (Op-amps)
Components used in the signal conditioning stage of mechatronics applications to amplify sensor signals for processing by an ADC and a microcontroller.
Signal Conditioning
The process of converting conditioned sensor signals into digital form, interpreting these signals with a microcontroller, and performing necessary computations and control actions to make decisions based on sensor inputs and execute appropriate responses.
Op-Amps
Versatile electronic components with high gain used for amplifying signals to a level readable by analog-to-digital converters and microcontrollers, improving signal quality by enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio, and performing various filtering and signal conditioning tasks.
Passive Circuits
Circuits containing passive components like resistors, capacitors, and inductors that do not require an external power source to operate and cannot amplify a signal.
Active Circuits
Circuits containing active components like transistors or operational amplifiers that require an external power source to operate and can amplify or switch signals.
Bridge Circuit
An electrical circuit used to measure resistance, impedance, capacitance, or other electrical quantities by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, producing a measurable voltage when an imbalance occurs due to a change in the measured quantity.
Gain
A measure of the amplification level of an electronic signal, represented as the ratio of output signal power to input signal power, important in various applications from audio amplification to signal processing in sensors and communication systems.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
A measure of an amplifier's ability to reject common-mode signal inputs while amplifying differential-mode signals, crucial for accurate signal processing.
Instrumentation Amplifier
A high-precision circuit amplifying the difference between two input voltages using buffer amplifiers and a differential amplifier, with features like precise gain adjustment and high CMRR.
Quantization
The process of mapping a large set of input values to a smaller set, usually as part of digitizing analog signals. In digital signal processing, it involves converting a continuous range of values into a finite range of discrete levels.
Sampling Theorem
The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem stating that a continuous signal can be completely represented and reconstructed from its samples if the sampling frequency is greater than twice the highest frequency of the signal.
Nyquist Rate
The minimum sampling rate required for perfect reconstruction of a signal, which is twice the highest frequency component present in the signal.
SAR ADC
Successive Approximation Register Analog-to-Digital Converter, a device that converts analog signals into digital form by comparing each binary bit of the digital output to the analog input signal in successive steps.
Range
The span between the minimum and maximum values a sensor or instrument can accurately measure.
Accuracy
The degree to which the measured value conforms to the correct value or a standard
Presicion
The consistency of repeated measurements, indicating the closeness of the measurements to each other
Hysteresis
The delay or lag in the response of a system to changes in the input, usually seen as a difference in the output when the input increases versus when it decreases, leading to a “dead zone.”
Resolution
The smallest change in a measurable quantity that an instrument can detect.
Systematic Errors
are consistent, directional inaccuracies that arise from known or unknown sources within the measurement process, leading to a predictable bias in the results.
Random Errors
unpredictable, non-directional variations that stem from inherently uncertain factors, causing scatter in measurement results that usually follow a Gaussian distribution
Calibration
The process of establishing the relationship between the physical measurement variable (X) and the signal variable (S) of a sensor or instrument. This is achieved by applying known physical inputs and recording the system’s response to align the measurement with standard units of reference.