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A comprehensive set of vocabulary-style flashcards covering cell theory, cell structure, organelles, tissues, organ systems, cell cycle, meiosis, genetics, and cellular transport as presented in the lecture notes.
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Cell Theory
The fundamental idea that all living things are composed of cells, and that the cell is the basic unit of structure and function in organisms.
Prokaryotic Cell
Simple cell type without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles; includes bacteria and archaea.
Eukaryotic Cell
More complex cell type with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; includes plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
Hans Janssen
Father-and-son who created the first compound microscope around 1590.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
Inventor of a powerful microscope and the first to observe live cells and microbes; called the Father of Microbiology.
Robert Hooke
Scientist who coined the term 'cell' after observing cork cells in Micrographia (1665).
Spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis)
Hypothesis that living organisms could arise from nonliving matter; repeatedly tested and challenged by experiments in the 17th–19th centuries.
Needham
Experiment that seemingly supported spontaneous generation by boiling gravy without a seal.
Spallanzani
Experiment that challenged Needham by showing sealed flasks prevented microbial growth.
Louis Pasteur
Disproved spontaneous generation with curved-neck flask experiments showing air exposure prevents contamination when air cannot reach the broth.
Mitosis
Body cell division producing two genetically identical diploid daughter cells; part of cell division.
Meiosis
Sex cell division producing four haploid gametes with genetic variation.
Cellular Respiration
Metabolic process in mitochondria that converts nutrients into ATP (energy).
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate; the main energy currency of the cell.
Photosynthesis
Process in chloroplasts that converts light energy into chemical energy (glucose and O2).
Mitochondria
Organelle that generates most of the cell’s ATP; contains its own DNA.
Chloroplast
Organelle in plant cells that conducts photosynthesis and contains chlorophyll; has its own DNA.
Endosymbiotic Theory
Hypothesis that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as free-living bacteria incorporated into ancestral eukaryotic cells.
Ribosome
Small RNA-protein complexes that synthesize proteins; can be free-floating or attached to membranes.
Cytosol
Fluid portion of the cytoplasm where metabolic reactions occur.
Cytoskeleton
Network of protein filaments (microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules) that gives structure and aids movement.
Microfilament (Actin)
Thin protein filament involved in cell movement and muscle contraction.
Microtubule
Thick hollow tubes important for cell shape, transport, and separation during cell division.
Intermediate Filament
Fibrous proteins providing mechanical support for the cell.
Prokaryotic Cell Ultrastructure
Includes a cell wall (peptidoglycan), capsule, pili, nucleoid, plasmids, and lack of a true nucleus.
Nucleoid
Region in a prokaryote where the chromosome resides; not membrane-bound.
Capsule
Outer sticky layer in some bacteria that protects from drying and helps adhesion; can be antiphagocytic.
Pili / Fimbriae
Hair-like structures on bacteria for attachment; pili (longer) can transfer DNA during conjugation.
Flagellum
Long whip-like structure that enables bacterial movement; varies in arrangement (monotrichous, lophotrichous, amphitrichous, peritrichous).
Nucleoid
Region containing most or all of the genetic material in a prokaryotic cell; not membrane-bound.
Plasmid
Small circular DNA molecule in bacteria, independent of chromosomal DNA and capable of replication.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough vs Smooth)
Rough ER has ribosomes and synthesizes proteins; Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and participates in lipid synthesis and detoxification.
Golgi Apparatus
Organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for delivery to targeted destinations.
Lysosome
Spherical organelle with hydrolytic enzymes that digest biomolecules and cell waste; can drive apoptosis.
Pinocytosis
Cell drinking; a form of endocytosis where fluids are engulfed.
Phagocytosis
Cell eating; ingestion of large particles or cells.
Exocytosis
Process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane to release contents outside the cell.
Endocytosis
General process of taking materials into the cell via vesicle formation.
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death, a controlled mechanism to remove damaged or unnecessary cells.
Autophagy
Degradation and recycling of worn-out cellular components within lysosomes.
Glycosome
Membrane-bound microbody containing enzymes for glycolysis, typical in some cells.
Peroxisome
Organelle containing oxidative enzymes; detoxifies hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) among other functions.
Nucleus
Membrane-bound organelle storing genetic material (DNA) and coordinating gene expression.
Nuclear Envelope/Membrane
Double membrane surrounding the nucleus with nuclear pores for transport.
Nucleolus
Nuclear region where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis occurs.
Ribosome (Svedberg unit)
Ribosome is a molecular machine for protein synthesis; Svedberg (S) indicates size; ribosomes can be free or attached.
Plasma/Cell Membrane
Semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer surrounding the cell, regulating entry/exit of substances.
Fluid Mosaic Model
Model describing the plasma membrane as a dynamic mosaic of lipids, proteins, and cholesterol.
Phospholipid Bilayer
Two-layer arrangement with hydrophilic heads facing water and hydrophobic tails inward.
Glycoprotein & Glycolipid
Proteins/lipids with carbohydrate chains needed for cell recognition and adhesion.
Cholesterol (in membrane)
Sterol that modulates membrane fluidity and stability.
Ribosome (Protein Synthesis)
Site of translation where mRNA is decoded to form polypeptides.
Cytosol vs Cytoplasm
Cytosol is the fluid inside the cell; cytoplasm includes cytosol plus organelles.
Cytoskeleton Components
Network of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules that supports shape and movement.
Mitochondrial Cristae
Folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane that increase surface area for ATP production.
Chloroplast
Plant cell organelle containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis; has own DNA.
Plasmodesmata
Channel through cell walls enabling transport and communication between plant cells.
Endosymbiotic Theory (revisited)
Theory that organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as independent prokaryotes.
Centrosome
MTOC in animal cells, organizing microtubules for cell division.
Plant vs Animal Cell Organelles (overview)
Plants: chloroplasts, cell walls, vacuoles; Animals: lysosomes, centrioles; both have mitochondria, nucleus, ER, Golgi.
Meristematic Tissue
Plant tissue of actively dividing cells responsible for growth (apical, lateral, intercalary).
Apical Meristem
Meristem at tips of roots and shoots contributing to primary growth (length).
Lateral Meristem
Meristem responsible for growth in thickness (secondary growth) in some plants.
Intercalary Meristem
Meristem located at nodes in grasses, enabling rapid elongation.
Permanent Tissue
Tissues that have lost the ability to divide; specialized for specific functions.
Ground Tissue
Plant tissue involved in storage, photosynthesis, and support; includes parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma.
Dermal Tissue
Outer protective tissue of plants (epidermis and related structures).
Vascular Tissue
Transport tissue in plants consisting of xylem and phloem.
Parenchyma
Thin-walled, alive plant cells involved in storage and metabolism; main component of ground tissue.
Collenchyma
Flexible, living plant cells with thickened cell walls; provides support.
Sclerenchyma
Rigid, often dead plant cells with thick lignified walls; provides strength.
Xylem
Water- and mineral-conducting tissue in plants; includes tracheids and vessel elements.
Xylem Parenchyma
Living cells within xylem that store and help transport water.
Phloem
Food-transport tissue in plants; moves sugars from leaves to rest of plant.
Sieve Tube Element
Conductive cell in phloem that lacks nuclei; relies on companion cells.
Companion Cell
Supportive phloem cell that loads and unloads sugars into sieve elements.
Dermal Epidermal Cells
Outer protective cells forming the epidermis of plants.
Guard Cells & Stomata
Guard cells regulate stomata openings for gas exchange and water loss.
CAM Photosynthesis
Carbon fixation pathway in some plants; open stomata at night to reduce water loss.
Connective Tissue
Tissue that supports, binds, and protects body parts; includes ECM, fibers, and ground substance.
Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
Network of proteins and polysaccharides outside cells providing structure and signaling.
Fibers (Collagen, Elastic, Reticular)
Protein fibers in ECM giving strength (collagen), elasticity (elastic), and filtration support (reticular).
Loose Connective Tissue
Relatively loosely arranged fibers with abundant ground substance; supports organs.
Dense Connective Tissue
Tightly packed collagen fibers; includes dense regular and dense irregular types.
Reticular Connective Tissue
Network of reticular fibers forming supportive stroma in organs like lymph nodes.
Bone Cells (Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, Osteoclasts)
Osteoblasts build bone matrix, osteocytes maintain it, osteoclasts resorb bone.
Bone Types (Spongy vs Compact)
Spongy bone has trabeculae and is lighter; compact bone is dense and strong.
Blood Components
Plasma (fluid), RBCs (oxygen transport), WBCs (immunity), platelets (clotting).
Adipose Tissue (White vs Brown)
White stores energy as fat; brown specializes in heat production, especially in infants.
Muscle Tissue/Myoctye
Contractile tissue; muscle fibers (myocytes) enable movement.
Skeletal Muscle
Voluntary muscle attached to bones; organized into sarcomeres for contraction.
Cardiac Muscle & Intercalated Discs
Involuntary heart muscle with intercalated discs enabling synchronized contraction.
Smooth Muscle
Involuntary muscle found in internal organs; non-striated and spindle-shaped.
Nervous Tissue
Tissue specialized for transmission of electrical impulses and coordination.
Neurons
Nerve cells that transmit signals; components include dendrites, axon, soma, and synapses.
Dendrite
Neuron branch that receives signals from other neurons.
Axon
Long projection that transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body.
Myelin Sheath & Node of Ranvier
Myelin insulates axons to speed conduction; gaps (Nodes of Ranvier) enable saltatory conduction.
Synapse
Junction where a neuron communicates with another cell via neurotransmitters.
Glial Cells
Supportive cells that protect, nourish, and insulate neurons.