east asian and middle eastern empires

ottoman empire

major islamic empire that controlled southeast europe, middle east, and north africa through strong military power and centralized rule

safavid empire

persian islamic empire that established shia islam as its state religion and built a powerful centralized state in iran

mughal empire

muslim dynasty that ruled most of south asia, blending islamic and indian culture while promoting trade, art, and architecture

suleiman mosque

grand ottoman mosque commissioned by sultan suleiman architectural achievement

coffeehouses

social gathering places, especially in the ottoman empire, where people met to drink coffee, exchange ideas, and discuss politics and culture

tariff

tax placed on imported or exported goods, usually to protect local industries or raise government revenue

tribute

payment made by a weaker state or group to a more powerful one as a sign of submission, loyalty, or for protection

ulama

muslim scholars and religious leaders who interpreted islamic law and guided communities in spiritual and legal matters

umma

global community of muslims united by their shared faith in islam

sharia law

islamic legal system derived from the quran and hadith that governs religious, moral, and social behavior

harem

private living houses for women in a muslim household, especially for royalty or wealthy families

miniature paintings

smalled, detailed artworks, often used in manuscripts that depict religious, historical, or courtly scenes

millet system

christians and jews lived in their own autonomous communities as long as they payed their taxes called jizya which was a form of religious tolerance

sikhism

monotheistic religion founded in south asia that emphasizes devotion to one god, equality, and community service

guru nanak

founder of sikhism who taught the oneness of god, equality, and social justice

taj mahal

white marble mausoleum in india, built by mughal emperor shah jahan to honor his wife mumtaz mahal (which is her tomb)

gunpowder empire

 large, multiethnic states in Southwest (Middle East), Central and South Asia that relied on firearms to conquer and control territories

sultan

muslim ruler with political and military authority over a state or empire

mehmed Ⅱ

ottoman sultan who conquered Constantinople in 1453, transforming it into the empires capital, istanbul

suleiman Ⅰ

aka suleiman the magnificent was the ottoman sultan known for expanding the empire, strengthening its law, and promoting art and architecture

topkapi palace

primary residence and administrative center of ottoman sultans in istanbul, symbolizing their power and wealth

viziers

chief advisor to the ruler and often held significant administrative and policy authority during ottoman empire

shah

king or ruler of persia

tax farming

system where the government lets individuals or companies collect taxes from the population in exchange for a fixed payment, often leading to corruption and abuse

askia of songhai

ruler who expanded songhai empire, strengthened islam and improved administration trade

piracy

act of attacking and robbing ships at sea without legal authority

shah abbas Ⅰ

safavid ruler who strengthened the military, centralized government, and promoted trade and arts in persia

ismail

founder of the safavid empire who established shia islam as the state religion in persia

sulh-i kull

policy of universal tolerance in the mughal empire that promoted religious acceptance and peaceful coexistence among different faiths

khalsa

committed to living by sikh principles and defending their faith

qezilbash

militant supporters of the safavid empire who helped establish and protect shia islam in persia

isfahan

major city in persia that became the capital under shah abbas Ⅰ, renowned for its stunning architecture and cultural achievements

babur

founder of mughal empire in india, deflected delhi sultanate, skilled commander and military leader

shah akbar the great

mughal emperor who created strong bureaucracy, standard measurement system, religious tolerance towards hindus, and improved life for women (outlawed sati)

zamindars

local landowners in india who collected taxes from peasants and often held significant social and economic power

mansabdars

officials in the mughal empire who held military and administrative ranks and were responsible for maintaining troops for the emperor

devshirme

ottoman practice of recruiting young christian boys, converting them to islam, and training them for military or administrative service in the empire

shah jahan

mughal emperor who is known for building the taj mahal as a tomb for his wife and promoting art and architecture in india

shah aurangzeb

mughal emperor known for expanding the empire to its greatest extent and enforcing strict islamic policies who was also intolerant towards hindus

janissaries

elite military group who challenged the power of sultans

istanbul

major city in turkey that was formerly constantinople, serving as the capital of byzantine and later the ottoman empire

purdah

practice of secluding women from public observation, often involving veiling and separate living spaces common in some muslim and south asian societies

mumtaz mahal

wife of mughal emperor shah jahan who built the taj mahal for her

sunni

largest branch of islam, whose followers believe leadership should be determined by the community rather than heredity

shi’a

branch of islam whose followers believe leadership should stay within the prophet muhammads family, specifically through his cousin and son in law, ali

rupee

silver coin currency used in india

delhi

historic city in india that served as the capital for several empires, including the delhi sultanate and the mughal empire

twelver shi’ism

largest branch of shia islam, which believes in a line of 12 divinely appointed imams as spiritual and political leaders

imams

religious leaders in islam, particularly in shia islam, who are considered spiritual guides and interpreters of gods will

madrasas

islamic schools/colleges that teach religious studies, law, and sometimes secular subjects

bureaucracy

system of government in which officials and administration manage state affairs through organized rules and hierarchies

centralized power

concentration of political authority and decision making in a single, central government or leader

hongwu

emperor of chinas ming dynasty who strengthened centralized authority and restored traditional confucian rule

ming dynasty

chinese dynasty known for restoring native rule, strengthening the great wall, and promoting trade, culture, and confucian governance

toyotomi hideyoshi

Japanese daimyo who unified japan and implemented social and land reforms during the late 16th century

tokugawa ieyasu

emperor of tokugawa shogunate in japan, establishing a long period of centralized rule and stability

edo

former name of tokyo, japan which became the political center under the tokugawa shogunate

tokugawa shogunate

feudal military government in japan that centralized power, enforced social order, and isolated the country from foreign influence

daimyo

powerful japanese landholding lords who controlled regional territories and maintained private armies

qing dynasty

last imperial dynasty of china, established by manchus known for territorial expansion and centralized rule

nanjing

historic chinese city that served as the capital of several dynasties, including the ming dynasty before beijing

forbidden city

in beijing was the imperial palace of chinas ming and qing dynasties, serving as the political and ceremonial center and symbol of the emperors authority

journey to the west

classical chinese novel from the ming dynasty that blends adventure, religion, and folklore, depicting the pilgrimage of a monk and his disciples to india to obtain buddies scriptures

zheng he

chinese admiral and explorer who led large naval expeditions during the ming dynasty to expand trade and influence across the indian ocean

white lotus rebellion

peasant uprising in china against the qing dynasty, driven by economic hardship and religious movement

red turban movement

popular uprising in china led by buddhist inspired rebels that contributed to the fall of the yuan dynasty

cartography

science and art of making maps to represent geographical information

manchus

people from northeastern china who conquered the ming dynasty and established the qing dynasty

47 ronin

group of japanese samurai who avenged their masters death

tribute system

network of trade and foreign relations in east asia in which neighboring states paid tribute to china in exchange for protection and trading rights

emperor qianlong

qing dynasty ruler known for territorial expansion, cultural patronage, and maintaining imperial prosperity

yongle

ming dynasty emperor who strengthened the empire, commissioned the yongle encyclopedia, and sponsored zheng hes naval voyages

kangxi

qing dynasty emperor who expanded chinas territory, stabilized the government, and promoted confucian culture and scholarship

canton system

chinese trade policy that restricted european merchants to the port of canton and regulated foreign trade

que

ceremonial stone pillars used in ancient china often placed at tombs or city gates, symbolizing honor, status, or protection

period of great peace

early tokugawa shogunate in japan, marked by political stability, centralized rule and economic growth