missing topics mcq rm 1

Independent measures design

Different participants take part in each condition of the experiment

Reducing participant variables (independent measures)

Achieved using random allocation so individual differences are evenly distributed across conditions

Random allocation

Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any condition

Counterbalancing

Used in repeated measures designs to reduce order effects (Changes in participants’ performance that occur because of the order in which conditions are experienced, rather than because of the independent variable) , not participant variables

Overt participant observation

Researcher openly joins the group being studied while collecting data

Non-participant observation

Researcher observes behaviour without becoming involved in the group

Researcher influence (participant observation)

Behaviour may change because the researcher is part of the group

Cross-sectional design

Measures different groups at a single point in time

Limitation of cross-sectional design

Cannot measure change over time

Quasi-experiment

study that examines the effect of an independent variable but lacks random allocation to conditions, often using pre-existing groups

Before-and-after design

Measures a dependent variable before and after an intervention without random allocation

Limitation of quasi-experiments

Reduced internal validity due to lack of random allocation

Normal distribution

Symmetrical distribution where the mean, median, and mode are equal

Positive skew

Distribution where most scores are low and the tail extends to the right

Effect of skew on the mean

The mean is pulled in the direction of the tail

Median

Measure of central tendency that is least affected by extreme values

Mean

Measure of central tendency most affected by outliers

Histogram

Graph used for continuous data with no gaps between bars

Bar chart

Graph used for categorical data with gaps between bars

Ordinal data

Data that can be ranked but has unequal intervals between values

Likert scale

Ordinal level of measurement

Discrete variable

Variable consisting of whole, countable values

Continuous variable

• Variable that can take any value within a range

• between any two values there are many possible values, including decimals

Thematic analysis

Qualitative method for identifying patterns of meaning across a dataset

what are the 6 steps of thematic analysis (braun and clark)

1. Familiarisation with the data

2. Generating initial codes

3. Searching for themes

4. Reviewing themes

5. Defining and naming themes

6. Producing the report

Interpretivist approach

Focuses on understanding subjective meaning and lived experience

Positivist approach

Focuses on objective measurement and quantification

Evaluative research question

Examines whether an intervention or programme is effective

Descriptive research question

Describes characteristics or prevalence of a phenomenon

Explanatory research question

Examines why a phenomenon occurs

Criterion validity

Extent to which a measure predicts future behaviour

Construct validity

Extent to which a test measures the theoretical construct it claims to measure

Confounding variable

A variable that systematically varies with the independent variable and may provide an alternative explanation for the results

Random allocation

Assigning participants to experimental conditions by chance to control confounding variables

Random sampling

Selecting participants from a population by chance to improve representativeness and external validity

Difference between random sampling and random allocation

• Random sampling selects participants from a population

• random allocation assigns participants to conditions

Reliability

The consistency or stability of a measurement over time or across items

Validity

The extent to which a measure accurately measures what it claims to measure

Internal consistency

The extent to which items on a scale measure the same underlying construct

Cronbach’s alpha

A statistic used to assess the internal consistency of a scale

Reliable but not valid

A measure that consistently produces the same results but does not measure the intended construct accurately

Test–retest reliability

The extent to which a measure produces similar results when administered at two different points in time

Ordinal level of measurement

A level of measurement where categories are ordered but the intervals between values are not equal

Ordinal variable example

Star ratings, Likert scales, or ranked positions

Interval level of measurement

A level of measurement with equal intervals between values but no true zero point

Likert scales

what kind of measurement

• Ordinal measures

• commonly used survey rating scales that measure attitudes, opinions, or perceptions by asking respondents how strongly they agree or disagree with a statement

Interpretivism

A research paradigm focused on understanding subjective meanings and social experiences

Interpretivist methods

Qualitative methods such as interviews, observations, and thematic analysis

Interpretivism vs positivism

Interpretivism focuses on meaning and context, while positivism aims to identify objective, generalisable laws

Systematic variance

Variance caused by the independent variable and confounding variables

Error variance

Variance caused by random, uncontrolled factors

Reducing error variance

Increases the ability to detect the effect of the independent variable

Descriptive research

Research that describes characteristics, patterns, or frequencies in data

Explanatory research

Research that examines relationships between variables or explains why phenomena occur

Evaluative research

Research that assesses the effectiveness of a programme, policy, or intervention

Exploratory research

Early-stage research used to explore new or poorly understood phenomena