chapter 1 — intro to the science of psychology

scope of psychology

scope of psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

goals of psychology [DPEC]

describe, predict, explain, change

scientific method

the process scientists use to conduct research

how do psychologists use the scientific method?

1. develop a question

2. develop a hypothesis

3. design study and collect data

4. analyze data

5. share the findings

why are representative samples important?

generalizability

descriptive research

research methods that describe and explores behaviors, but with findings that cannot definitively state cause and effect relationships

naturalistic observation

studies participants in their natural environment brought systematic observation

case study

closely examines an individual or small group

survey method

uses questionnaires or interviews

observer bias

errors in the recording of observations, which result from the researchers value system, expectations, or attitudes

correlational method

a type of research method examining relationships among variables

correlation

an association or relationship between two or more variables

correlation coefficient

the statistical measure that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables

third variable

an unaccounted for characteristic of participants or the environment that explains changes in the variables of interest

experimental method

type of research that manipulates the independent variable to uncover cause and effect relationships

experiment

two or more randomly assigned groups are compared after some independent variable as been manipulated

steps of experimental method

1. create 2 or more equivalent groups using random assignment

2. systemically vary one thing (independent variable)

3. measure changes in the behavior of interest (dependent variable)

random assignment

the process of appointing study participants to experimental or control groups, ensuring that every person has an equal chance of being assigned to either

experimental group

participants in the experiment that are exposed to the treatment variable or manipulated by the researcher

control group

participants that are not exposed to the treatment variable (comparison group)

independent variable

the variable manipulated by the researcher to determine its effects on the dependent variable

dependent variable

the response that is measured to determine the effect of the researchers manipulation

extraneous variable

a characteristic of participants or the environment that could unexpectedly influence the outcome of a study

confounding variable

type of extraneous variable that changes in sync with the independent variable

double-blind study

a study on which neither the participants nor the researchers know which participants are receiving the treatment and which are getting the placebo

placebo

a fake treatment given to members of the control group

experimenter bias

researcher expectations that influence the outcome of a study

research ethics

guidelines on planning, conducting, and reporting research

what are the research ethics?

1. privacy

2. informed consent

3. debriefing

institutional review board [IRB]

committee that reviews research proposals to protect the rights and welfare of all participants

psychologists

scientists who study behavior and mental processes

nature

inherited biological factors that shape behaviors, personality, and other characteristics

nurture

environmental factors that shape behaviors, personality, and other characteristics

empirical method

a process that users objective observation to measure and collect data

introspection

the examination of one’s own conscious activities

structuralism

early form of psychology that used introspection to determine the structure and most basic elements of the mind

functionalism

a early form of psychology that focuses on the function of thoughts, feelings and behaviors and how they help us adapt to the environment

hypothesis

a statement that can be used to test a prediction

theory

synthesized observations in order to explain phenomena and guide predictions to be tested through research

operational definitions

the precise manner in which variables of interest are defined and measured

replicate

the repeat an experiment with a new sample or changes in procedure to provide further support for the findings of the first study

variables

measurable characteristics that can vary over time or across people

population

all members of an identified group about which a researcher is interested

sample

a subset of a population chosen for inclusion in a experiment

random sample

a subset of population chosen through a procedure that ensures all members of the population have an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study

representative sample

a subgroup of a population selected so that its members have characteristics similar to those of the population of interest

psychoanalytic perspective

underlying conflicts influence behavior

behavioral perspective

behavior is learned primarily through associations, reinforcers, and observation

humanistic perspective

humans are naturally inclined to grow to a positive direction

sociocultural perspective

other people, as well as the broader cultural context, influence behavior and mental processes

evolutionary perspective

humans have evolved characteristics that help them adapt to the environment, increasing their chances of surviving and reproducing

cognitive perspective

cognitive processes drive behavior

biopsychosocial perspective

a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors shapes behavior and mental processes

biological perspective

behavior and mental processes arise from physiological activity

Abraham Maslow

humanistic

B.F. Skinner

behavioral

Carl Rogers

humanistic

Charles Darwin

evolutionary

David Buss

evolutionary

George Miller

cognitive

Ivan Pavlov

behavioral

J.B. Watson

behavioral

Lev Vygotsky

sociocultural

Mamie Phipps Clark — perspective

sociocultural

Sigmund Freud

psychoanalytic

Francis Sumner

The first African American psychologist to earn a Ph.D.

Founded the psychology department at Howard University

Studied racial bias, even though funding sources denied him financial support

George Sanchez

The first Latino psychologist to earn a Ph.D.

Inez Beverly Prosser

The first Black woman psychologist to earn a Ph.D.

Kenneth Bancroft Clark

Held a faculty position at the City University of New York

He and his wife examined the impact of prejudice and discrimination of child development

Conducted research that informed the 1954 Supreme Court decision declaring segregation in public schools unlawful

Mamie Phipps Clark — accomplishments

First Black woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia University

Was the executive director of the Northside Center for Child Development in Manhattan

She and her husband examined the impact of prejudice and discrimination of child development

Conducted research that informed the 1954 Supreme Court decision declaring segregation in public schools unlawful

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first woman psychologist to earn a Ph.D.

Produced extensive research on animals

Wrote an influential book entitled “The Animal Mind: A Textbook of Comparative Psychology”

Martha Bernal

The first Latina psychologist to earn a Ph.D.

Mary Whiton Calkins

The first female president of the American Psychological Association

Focused on memory and personality and established her own laboratory at Wellesley College

She completed the requirements of a Ph.D. At Harvard but was not allowed to graduate from an all-male college because she was a woman

natural selection

the process through which inherited traits in a given population increases because their adaptive or decrease.