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Give four reasons why Hippocrates was important in medicine and treatment.
- He encouraged people to look for natural treatments for illness rather than by supernatural methods.
- Developed the theory of the Four Humours to explain the causes of disease. We know this theory is wrong but it dominated medical treament for centuries.
- Wrote many books, documenting his work for others to study.
- Showed how important it was to observe and record the symptoms of illness so that doctors were more likely to choose the right cure if they took care to find the cause of the problem and also to help with the diagnosis and treatment of future patients.
What are the four humours and how did people believe they worked?
Blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile were linked with the seasons and the four elements. If the humours were out of balance, that was the reason for them being unhealthy. For example, a runny nose would show that the phlegm in the body was unbalanced, signifying an illness (a cold).
Why did people believe Galen's theories for so long?
- His ideas always fit with the teachings of the church which dominated at the time.
- There was a lack of communication prior to the invention of the printing press.
- England was at war frequently which used up money and resources that could've been used for researching new medicines and treatments.
- They were sensible enough ideas; the concept of putting something cold on your forehead when you're running a temperature is a valid and accurate way to treat someone.
- Did dissections to find actual evidence and study anatomy.
What was the Black Plague?
A disease called the bubonic plague spread across Europe in the 14th century which caused headaches, tiredness, swellings called buboes the size of apples in the groin and armpits. It changed into other forms as well. Many patients only lasted a few days after catching it before they died a very painful death.
How did people try to treat the Black Death?
- Fasting and praying.
- Eating cool things.
- Placing dried toads against the buboes.
- Carrying herbs and spices to smell.
- Cutting open the buboes and draining the pus.
- Keeping the air moving by ringing bells and having birds fly around the room.
How did people try to prevent the Black Death?
- Walking in procession to a church, saying prayers and whipping each other to ask for forgiveness from God.
- Tidying the rubbish from streets.
- Not letting foreigners into their towns or leave them either.
Describe the positives and negatives of going to a trained physician for treatment.
- Were trained and had medical qualifications.
- Offered a diagnosis.
- They were very expensive.
- Directed patients to other places anyway as they only offered diagnosis.
Describe the positives and negatives of going to the apothecary for treatment.
- Had no medical qualifications so couldn't always provide an accurate diagnosis.
- Were trained in some herbal remedies.
- Much cheaper than seeing a physician.
- Mixed medicines to provide treatment.
Describe the positives and negatives of going to a barber surgeon for treatment.
- Good at very basic surgery.
- Experienced at pulling out teeth.
- Weren't trained.
- Didn't use anaesthetics so there was a very low success rate.
Describe the positives and negatives of going to a hospital for treatment.
- Treated with care.
- Accessible.
- Had quite basic resources.
Describe the positives and negatives of going to a wise woman for treatment.
- Good with small illnesses.
- Could deal with broken bones and child birth.
- Knew herbal remedies that had been passed down through generations
- Had very basic knowledge of medicine and treatment.
- There would have only been one per village and in the early modern period they were accused of witchcraft.
Describe the positives and negatives of using prayer and pilgrimage for treatment.
- Gave people hope.
- Different surroundings at a place of pilgrimage may actually have been cleaner, improving health.
- No basis in science.
- No specific treatment provided.
How was progress made in the Middle Ages?
- Old books were uncovered so old treatments became used again.
- Improved knowledge of anatomy.
- Found effective treatments from traditional remedies.
- Discovered the link between dirt and illness.
- Training for doctors became available.
How was there a lack of progress in the Middle Ages?
- People still believed Galen's theories.
- Wasn't important to come up with new ideas a that time.
- People believed supernatural things were responsible for health.
- There were few doctors and hospitals.
- The Black Death hindered progress.
- No working anaesthetics limited surgery.
- Bad public health measures.
Explain how the invention of the printing press impacted on medicine in the Renaissance.
- Communication was improved so knowledge was spread quickly and accurately nation and worldwide.
- More books were available as they didn't have to be written out by hand.
Explain how the loss of power and influence of the Catholic church impacted medicine.
- People began to question Galen as it became okay to challenge the views of the church.
- There was an increase in dissections which the church had previously said was unholy, providing more knowledge on anatomy.
How did William Harvey advance the knowledge of physiology (the study of how the organs work)?
- Helped by the the new invention of the water pump, Harvey proved that the heart acted like a pump to push blood around the body and was therefore not constantly burned and re-made in the liver as Galen had said.
- He performed many dissections and proved Galen wrong about there being holes in the septum that blood flowed through and published a book in 1628 to document his findings.
How did Andreus Vesalius advance the knowledge of anatomy (the study of the structure of the body)?
- Disproved Galen's theory that the jaw was made of four bones but one and that the liver did not have five lobes like he had said.
- He believed in the importance of dissecting human bodies and this helped to establish surgery as a separate medical profession.
- Published a book that included 277 detailed anatomical illustrations and was determined to produce an atlas of the body.
What opposition did William Harvey face?
- Harvey guessed that capillaries carried blood between the arteries and veins but was unable to prove it because microscopes were not yet powerful enough.
- Whilst his work would enable others to make medical breakthroughs in the future, it didn't advance knowledge about disease or ow to treat it so had little short term impact.
What opposition did Andreus Vesalius face?
- Many books were written against his ideas and they weren't fully accepted for 50 years because Galen's ideas had dominated for so long.
- He was criticised for challenging Galen's ideas.
- Like Harvey, his work had no impact on the prevention or treatment of disease, even though it did enable others to make breakthroughs in the future.
How did medicine change between 1350 and 1750? (What factors were involved?)
- The microscope was invented (science and technology)
- Universities and medical schools were founded (scientific knowledge)
- The printing press was invented (science and technology)
- The mechanical pump was invented (science and technology)
- The authority of the Catholic church decreased (religion and beliefs)
- New plants were discovered and lands explored (scientific knowledge)
How did medicine stay the same between 1350 and 1750? (What factors were involved?)
- Few people could afford to go to a trained physician (social attitudes)
- The Church controlled education and medical training (religion and beliefs)
- Many people were reluctant to change the way they did things (social attitudes)
- Most minor illnesses were treated by women in the family (scientific knowledge)
- Some herbal remedies worked (scientific knowledge)
- The Church discouraged dissection (religion and beliefs)
- Many people believed that their lives were affected by supernatural events (social attitudes/religion and beliefs)
- Some people felt better after being bled or purged (scientific knowledge)
- Herbal remedies were passed down from one generation to the next (social attitudes/scientific knowledge)
- The works of Galen were still used as the basics for all medical training (scientific knowledge)
What happened in Britain in the period 1750-1900 which contributed to the poor health of people?
- There were often accidents in factories from machinery.
- Extreme overcrowding in houses and factories.
- The conditions in the factories led to ill health e.g. poor ventilation created breathing problems.
- In the big towns and cities there was less access to fresh food.
- Sewers ran into the rivers where people often got their 'clean' water.
- The housing in the towns was of poor quality and rooms were damp and poorly ventilated.
- Living conditions were cramped with one house often containing more than one family.
What is cholera?
An infectious disease of the small intestine caused by bacteria. Symptoms include: diarrhea, vomiting, muscle cramps and severe dehydration.
What is miasma?
A poisonous atmosphere formerly thought to rise from swamps and putrid matters that caused disease. Bad air.
What is spontaneous generation?
A theory widely held in the 19th century and earlier stating that living organisms could arise directly and rapidly from dead material, now discredited.
In what year was the small pox vaccination created by Edward Jenner?
1796
What is inoculation?
Trying to make someone immune to a disease by using a mild version of the same disease you're protecting them against.
What is vaccination?
Trying to make someone immune to a disease by using a small amount of a similar but different disease.
How did Jenner develop the small pox vaccine?
1. Jenner saw that people were dying of smallpox.
2. He noticed that milkmaids who got cowpox didn't seem to get smallpox.
3. Jenner formed a hypothesis that cowpox provided some protection against smallpox.
4. Jenner decided to test his ideas out by doing an investigation.
5. A young boy called James Phipps was tested because he had neither disease.
6. Some pus from a cowpox spot on a milkmaid was collected and put into in James' arm.
7. James got cowpox and was ill for a few days.
8. Some pus from a smallpox victim was put into James' arm.
9. James didn't develop smallpox, so Jenner decided that his hypothesis had been correct and named the process vaccination after the Latin word for cow: 'vacca'.
What was good about Jenner's methods?
- He worked in a scientific way.
- Had pamphlets explaining the process of vaccination printed for other scientists so they could check his work.
- He didn't mind others using his work.
- The Jennerian Society promoted it and 12,000 people had been vaccinated within 2 years.
- Napoleon and Jefferson thought it was a great breakthrough.
- In 1852, vaccination was compulsory, reducing cases of smallpox.
What were the limitations of the impact Jenner had?
- He didn't have the scientific knowledge or resources to explain what was actually happening in vaccination.
- Vaccination wasn't always successful.
- Many doctors opposed his work because the government started offering vaccination for free so they lost business.
- The link only existed between cowpox and smallpox, not any other diseases.
What factors helped to advance the development of the smallpox vaccine?
- Science and technology
- Government
- Individuals
- Attitudes and beliefs
- Communication
What opposition did Jenner face?
- The Royal Society said it was too revolutionary and wouldn't publish it.
- People didn't want to believe a country doctor.
- Put out other doctors as they were jealous of his discovery; George Pierson tried to claim it as his own.
- Smallpox was seen as a punishment for sin and shouldn't be messed with.
- Varialation business decreased.
- The government were seen to be interfering by making it compulsory; vaccination should have been a choice for the public.
- It was seen as against God's law to give people an animal disease.
- People were afraid of turning into cows.
- Vaccinations were clumsy and didn't always work.
What factors helped the development of Pasteur's Germ Theory?
- Science and technology: a powerful microscope had been recently invented, without which Pasteur would've had no proof.
- Teamwork: he worked with a team of researchers to help him discover the theory.
- Individuals: Pasteur was a very naturally determined man and without this determination he would never have found the cause of disease.
- War: After the war, the French and German wanted to prove themselves which drove Pasteur to compete with the likes of Robert Koch.
What factors hindered the development of Pasteur's Germ Theory?
- Attitudes and beliefs: people were stubborn to take on new ideas.
- Scientific knowledge: scientists still believed in miasma and spontaneous generation
In what year was Pasteur's Germ Theory accepted?
1864
What factors affected Koch finding the microbes for specific diseases?
- Science and technology: without the powerful microscope Koch had, he wouldn't have been able to study the microbes. Also his method of staining the microbes was vital in finding the microbes for each disease.
- Individuals: Koch was instrumental in the discovery.
- War: His motivation to glorify Germany after the war pushed him to make the discovery.
Who discovered it and how did they find the cure for syphilis?
In 1940, Paul Ehrlich worked in the same team as Robert Koch and tested over 900 compounds on mice until he found that number 606 (a.k.a. Selvarsan) cured syphilis. The new cure was named a 'magic bullet' because it killed the disease without harming anything else in the body.
How was penicillin discovered?
- In 1928, Alexander Fleming left his culture plates out by accident and went on holiday. Bacteria and penicillin grew on them.
- Norman Heatley was paramount in working out how to mass produce penicillin and what it could cure through much scientific thinking and experimentation.
Why was the discovery of magic bullets a turning point in medicine?
- With the war wounding hundreds of thousands of men, the magic bullets saved many lives.
- Magic bullets saw the start of cure rather than prevention in medicine.
- They were mass production friendly thanks to Florey and Chain in 1939, making them available to everyone.
How was scientific thinking essential in the discovery of DNA?
James Watson and Francis Crick's adventurous approach and methodical thinking helped them to try new things and find DNA in 1953.
How was science and technology essential in the discovery of DNA?
The x-ray crystallography Rosalind Franklin used provided evidence for the existence of the double helix structure.
How were individuals essential in the discovery of DNA?
Rosalind Franklin's expertise helped her find proof for Watson and Crick.
How was team work essential in the discovery of DNA?
Watson and Crick worked together and without their team work they might not have discovered DNA.
Why was the discovery of DNA so important?
- Enable people to see which genes carried the information for things such as hair colour, height and eye colour as well as hereditary diseases and illnesses such as sickle cell anaemia.
- Knowing about DNA was and is essential in knowing how to clone, combat cancer and schizophrenia, forensic science, genetic modification and made it possible to manufacture proteins like insulin and growth hormone.
Louis Pasteur
19th century
- germ theory
- vaccine for chicken cholera/anthrax
- showed how vaccine works
- found that germs cause infection
Robert Koch
19th century
- identified different disease-causing microbes
- discovered the tuberculosis vaccine
- stained & photographed germs
Florence Nightingale
19th century
- military nurse
- wrote book "role of nurses advice"
- made hospitals cleaner
4 Humours
Blood- leaches
Black bile- purgative
Yellow bile- make you sick
Phlegm- make you hot and sticky
Alexander Fleming
20th century
- identified mould as penicillin
- insisted it could kill germs
- no proof, couldn't develop anymore
Paul Ehrlich
20th century
- worked with Koch when staining bacteria
- made magic bullets, destroyed microbes without harming body
- showed there was a cure for syphilis
Edward Jenner
18th century
- doctor
- milk maids/cowpox
- James Phipps, Gave dose of cowpox & 6 weeks later smallpox
William Harvey
Renaissance
- discovered that the heart works like a pump
- published findings
Vesalius
Early Modern Period
- performed on the anatomy of criminals
- Wrote book "the fabric of the human body"
Domagk
20th century
- discovered the 2nd magic bullet
- called it Prontosil
Galen
Roman
- theory of opposites
- anatomy, pigs
Hippocrates
Ancient Greece
- 4 humours
- clinical observation
- Hippocratic oath
- wrote ideas/discoveries down
Watson and Crick
20th century
- discovered the construction of DNA
Florey and Chain
20th century
- developed penicillin
- experimented on mice
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