PSYCH 2AA3 Gemini

Theme 1: Continuity

Concerned with whether cognitive ability develops through a continuous process (smooth, gradual accumulation) or a discontinuous process (stage-like, abrupt changes). An example is the Information Processing Theory.

Nativism Example

A specific phobia (e.g., of snakes) argued to be biological preparedness (nature) for recognizing threats since it enhanced survival.

Empiricism Example

A child becoming an expert chess player through intensive, deliberate practice and high-quality coaching, highlighting the nurture aspect.

Theme 3: Active Child

Refers to a child's active role in shaping their own cognitive development, exemplified by a curious child who seeks complex input from their environment.

Theme 4: Experimental vs. Experiential

Refers to the contrast between controlled research (Experimental) and real-world learning observed through individual differences and cultural impacts (Experiential).

Scientific Method

A systematic process consisting of Observation, Form Hypothesis, Test Hypothesis, Gather Data, and Draw a Conclusion.

Evolutionary Misconception

The mistaken belief that evolution acts on individuals or through a single generation rather than on populations across many generations.

Peppered Moth Example

Demonstrates evolution acting on a population; the frequency of dark-colored moths increased due to better survival rates in industrialized environments.

Human Genetics Facts

Most cells have 46 chromosomes, less than 1% of genes account for individual differences, and greater genetic differences can exist between two people of different races than those of the same race.

Polygenic Inheritance

When psychological traits manifest through many genes and their interactions with the environment, often leading to a normal distribution in traits.

Heritability Definition

Extent to which a trait can be attributed to genetic inheritance, with scores of 0 indicating environmental prediction and 1 indicating genetic prediction.

Good/Bad Rat Mother Study

Showed how mothering style impacts gene expression in pups, emphasizing epigenetics where environment overrides biological genotype.

Methylation

A process where a methyl group attaches to DNA to silence gene activity, significantly influenced by environmental factors.

Passive Effects of Genotype

Occurs when genetically related parents create a nurturing environment reflecting their genes, impacting the child's environment.

Evocative Effects of Genotype

The child's innate traits elicit responses from others and shape their environment, for example, a happy baby receiving more positive interaction.

Active Effects of Genotype

The child's genetic predispositions influence their choice of environments and activities, becoming stronger with age.

Prenatal Brain Development Stages

1. Formation of Neural Tube, 2. Neurogenesis, 3. Migration, 4. Differentiation, 5. Cell/Synaptic Pruning.

Functional vs. Structural Brain Development

Before birth, brain development is structural, while after birth it shifts to functional, optimizing the efficiency of neural connections.

Fetal Learning Evidence

The Mennella et al. (2001) study showing that fetuses can learn tastes/smells, influencing preferences postnatally.

Apgar Score Categories

Apgar Score is based on Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration; a normal score ranges from 7-10.

Neonatal Imitation Interpretation

Interpreted as a reflex rather than intentional action, suggesting its role in establishing bonds with caregivers.

Low-Birth-Weight (LBW) Definition

Defined as newborns weighing less than 2500g.

Preterm Definition

Defined as newborns born before 37 weeks of gestation.

Brooks-Gunn & Warren Study

Found that social factors were far more significant than hormonal factors in explaining variance in adolescent depression.

Cortical Thickness Findings

Shaw et al. (2006) found superior intelligence linked to significant changes in cortical thickness during development.

Reasons for Cortical Thickness Change

Changes occur due to prenatal neuron formation, childhood myelination, and synaptic pruning in adolescence.

REM Sleep Importance

Karni et al. (1994) highlighted its role in skill performance improvement during learning.

Piaget’s Assumptions

1. Discontinuous development, 2. Domain-general mechanism, 3. Active agents, 4. Constructivist approach.

Sensorimotor Stage Achievement

Characterized by early reflexive actions and understanding object permanence and goal-directed behavior by 8-12 months.

Preoperational Stage Limitations

Defined by egocentrism and reliance on tangible understanding, lacking logical thinking.

Concrete Operational Stage Achievements

Ability to perform concrete operations, understand conservation, seriation, and transitivity.

Formal Operational Stage Definition

Characterized by abstract reasoning and increased metacognition.

Piaget vs. Vygotsky on Development

Piaget emphasized independent exploration, while Vygotsky focused on socially/culturally determined development through social interaction.

Vygotsky's Educational Implication

Utilization of the Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding to challenge and support learners effectively.

Task-Based Approach in Cognitive Neuroscience

Measures brain activity during specific tasks, subtracting resting activity to isolate relevant neural functions.

Qiu et al. (2018) Findings

Found a correlation between larger hippocampal volume and higher socioeconomic status in children.

Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Implications

Emphasizes training in executive function, recognizing stress's impact on memory, and being patient with learners.

Sensation vs. Perception

Sensation is the activation of sensory receptors, while perception is the interpretation of sensory input.

Guerrero et al. (2020) Findings

Parental control over children's screen time was the strongest predictor of them meeting physical activity guidelines during the pandemic.

Macchi Cassia et al. (2004) Conclusion

Newborns prefer top-heavy patterns, thus spending more time looking at faces due to their top-heavy nature.

Average-Faces Preference Explanation

Genetically wired to prefer average-looking faces, supported by rapid visual accumulation experiences.

Habituation/Dishabituation in Infants

Used to assess perception; habituation is decreased response, dishabituation is increased response to new stimuli.

Operant Conditioning Paradigm in Infants

Involves offering two choices for behavior associated with a reward to assess preferences.

Own-Race Preference Finding

By 3 months, infants show a preference for faces resembling their own race, influenced by exposure.

Perceptual Narrowing Findings

Kelly et al. (2007) showed experience fine-tunes face discrimination, with infants losing ability outside frequent exposures.

Phonemic Fine-Tuning Findings

Kuhl et al. (2006) noted that infants' ability to discriminate phonemes declines with age based on linguistic exposure.

Intersensory Redundancy Definition

Refers to infants' ability to focus on amodal information (e.g., rhythm) across senses, suggesting initial sensory undifferentiation.

Baillargeon Evidence on Cognitive Abilities

Showed through Violation of Expectation that infants possess implicit knowledge of object permanence earlier than Piaget suggested.

Baillargeon vs. Piaget on Object Permanence

Baillargeon's use of looking times revealed implicit understanding, whereas Piaget relied on explicit actions requiring motor skills.

Information Processing Approach Components

Comprises Hardware (brain structure) and Software (cognitive strategies), both improving with maturation.

Kail (1991) on Processing Speed Development

Shows that speed of processing increases significantly with age, primarily due to myelination and synaptic pruning.

Wellman et al. (1975) on Memory Discrepancy

Observed emerging strategies in young children hindered by limitations in their memory capacity.

Infantile Amnesia Explanations

Can be attributed to mismatches in encoding and retrieval formats, lack of self-concept, and different memory types.

Children's Recall Failures Reasons

Include suggestibility, source monitoring errors, and limited cognitive capacities.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Comprises Analytical, Creative, Practical intelligence, with Wisdom requiring high analytical and practical skills.

Intelligence Assessment Difficulties

Include cultural specificity, subjective scoring, non-cognitive factors, and stereotype threat effects.

Heritability of Intelligence Estimation

Best estimate is around 50%, suggesting equal influence from genetics and environment on intelligence.

Scarr & Weinberg Adoption Study Conclusion

Demonstrated the disparity between adopted children achieving higher IQs while still reflecting biological ranks in IQ.

Hymovitch (1952) Rat Study Findings

Highlighted the significance of free environments during early stages for cognitive development.

Chugani et al. (2001) Orphanage Study Findings

Found that brain function is impacted by early experiences, indicating brain plasticity for timely intervention.

Neural Mechanism of Intelligence Understanding

Focus on processing efficiency in neural pathways rather than size, with superior intelligence linked to effective thinning of synapses.

5 Components of Language

Phonemes (sounds), Morphemes (meaningful units), Semantics (meanings), Syntax (rules), Pragmatics (functions).

Infants' Statistical Inference Evidence

Showed that infants could extract statistical regularities to segment words based on syllable frequency.

Language Acquisition Milestones

From 6 months: 1-word to 2-word utterances by 18-24 months, vocabulary spurt, and 3-word combinations by age 3.

Phonemic Awareness Definition

Awareness of word sound structure, critical for reading ability.

Critical Period vs. Sensitive Period

Critical Period requires specific timing for development; Sensitive Period is a flexible window for optimal effects.

Uniqueness of Human Language

Syntax is the unique aspect typically not mastered by animals.

Nativist Perspective on Language Acquisition

Posits innate structures (Language Acquisition Device) for understanding grammar.

Types of Aphasia Definitions

Wernicke’s Aphasia (meaningless speech) and Broca’s Aphasia (difficulty producing speech).

Core Emotions Emergence Timeline

1 month: reflexive smiles, 2-3 months: social smiling, 4-6 months: anger, 6 months: fear, 18-24 months: complex emotions.

Cognitive Development & Emotional Regulation

Cognitive skills development allows for better emotion regulation strategies.

Temperament Definition & Rothbart's Dimensions

Behavioral styles distinction; includes Extraversion, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control dimensions.

Harlow's Monkey Experiment Conclusion

Revealed that attachment formed from contact comfort rather than food, emphasizing socioemotional development.

Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment Development

Includes Pre-attachment, Attachment-in-the-making, True Attachment, and Reciprocal Relationships stages.

Types of Attachment in Strange Situation

Secure, Avoidant, Resistant, and Disorganized attachment styles, reflecting different caregiver interactions.

Attachment Quality Indicators

Secure attachment correlates with better social relationships and self-esteem; insecure attachment relates to behavioral difficulties.

I-Self vs. Me-Self Definition

I-Self as the agent of experience versus Me-Self as the self-concept reflecting beliefs about oneself.

Self-Concept Recognition Key Event

Infants recognize themselves in mirrors by 18-24 months, shown in the rouge test.

Self-Concept Differences Preschoolers vs. Older Children

Preschoolers focus on tangible attributes, while older children include emotions and competencies in their self-assessments.

Adolescent Self-Concept Egocentric Features

Includes Imaginary Audience, Personal Fable, and Illusion of Invulnerability.

Erikson's Identity Statuses Overview

Diffusion, Moratorium, Foreclosure, and Achievement based on exploration and commitment.

Self-Esteem Development Pattern

Highest in preschool, dips in elementary, stabilizes, then dips again in high school, stabilizing thereafter.

Physical Appearance & Self-Esteem Correlation

Physical appearance is the strongest predictor of self-esteem in adolescents.

Mueller & Dweck Praise Study Findings

Children praised for effort performed better, promoting growth mindset over ability praise that leads to pressure.

Implicit Gender Stereotype Development Timeline

Observation of gendered behaviors in infants from ages 1 to 2 years.

Mondschein et al. Study Findings

Mothers underestimate daughters' capabilities and overestimate sons', showing parental biases.

Spatial Abilities Gender Difference

The only cognitive ability with consistent gender differences favoring males.

Kohlberg's Gender Stability vs. Constancy

Gender Stability recognizes gender is a lifetime trait; Gender Constancy recognizes gender remains regardless of appearance.

Types of Aggression Emergence Ages

Instrumental (around 1 year), Hostile (elementary), Reactive, and Relational (with verbal skills).

Aggression Stability Over Time Findings

High levels of aggression tend to persist over time, suggestive of underlying traits.

Social Role Theory on Gender Differences

Suggests social expectations shape psychological differences in behavior.

Evolutionary Theory Gender Differences Prediction

Females, being more selective, are pursued by males, who must compete for attention.

Piaget's Moral Realism Description

Rules seen as unchangeable truths; focus on damage quantity and belief in immanent justice.

Piaget's Moral Relativism Description

Rules seen as arbitrary; moral decisions based on intent, emphasizing social contracts.

Kohlberg's Preconventional Stages Overview

Stage 1 focuses on obedience to avoid punishment; Stage 2 focuses on self-interest.

Kohlberg's Conventional Stages Overview

Stage 3 centers on social expectations; Stage 4 emphasizes law obedience for social order.

Kohlberg's Post-Conventional Stages Overview

Stage 5 balances individual and societal needs; Stage 6 prioritizes universal ethical principles.

Infancy Prosocial Behavior Development

Includes early empathic responses, preferences for prosocial characters, and voluntary helping by 18 months.

Warneken & Tomasello Study Findings

Highlight the motivation differences between chimpanzee and toddler helping behaviors based on situational context.

Talking Circle Approach Steps

Conflict resolution framework emphasizing emotional regulation and guided discussions.