Studied by 1 personWhat were the effects of envirnomental events on human history?
The Little Ice Age, 13-19 century and General Crisis -Linked to demographic collapse in the Americas -Desertion of large areas of native American farmland
ended traditional practices of forest management through burning
resurgence of plant life,
shorter growing seasons and less hospital weather conditions affected food production wet cold summers reduced harvests dramatically in Eurasia -lead to the collapse of the Ming dynasty in China -Europe, severe droughts, ruined crops in regions such as China, in 1637-1641
Cortes
A Spaniard who landed on the shores of Mexico. After colonizing several Caribbean islands, the Spanish had turned their attention to the American mainland. This explorer marched inward, looking to claim new lands for Spain. He and his force of about 600 men went to fight the Aztecs. Montezuma II (Aztec emperor) gave him a share of their gold supply instead of fighting. This person was not satisfied and forced the Aztecs to mine more gold and silver. In the spring of 1520, the Aztecs rebelled against the Spanish intruders and drove this force out. He returned in 1521 to defeat them and take Tenochtitlan for Spain. (He brought with him horses, guns, and small pox. The Aztecs believed he was the god, Quetzalcoatl, and welcomed him into their city, but he teamed up with their enemies and enslaved them all)
The Great Dying
killed around 90% of native Americans . was caused by diseases brought over by Europeans to which Natives didn't have an immunity. Many died of smallpox, measles, influenze, yellow fever, malaria and typhus while others died of starvation because they were too sick to get food or eat.
Dona Marina
Aztec Native American women from the town of Tobasco who became an interpreter to Hernando Cortes, married and bore him a son, and was then married off to Juan Jaramillo.
Columbian Exchange
enormous widespread exchange of plants, animals, food, human population, diseases and ideas; -one of the most significant events in the history of world ecology, agriculture and culture between America, Asia, Europe, and Africa. -wheat, rice, sugarcane, grapes, etc. took hold in the Americas where they transformed the landscape
European animals, multiplying quickly in the absence of natural predators. -American food crops like corn and potatoes also spread to the eastern hemisphere.
Atlantic world connecting four continents.
Peninsulares
100 percent Spanish, they were of Spanish descent and born in Spain. Spanish born government and church officials who made up the upper class in the Spanish-controlled Americas
Mestizo
A new racial concept that developed in Latin America following the intermixing that occurred between European (namely Spanish) colonists and the Native American population.
Plantation complex
in the Caribbean and Brazil, plantations were common for the mass-scale production of sugar; since the Indian populations had been greatly depleted by disease, slaves needed to be imported for the intense work that had to be done; the labor was so intense that many slaves died, necessitating the import of more slaves (population became mostly African descent); the mixed race here (between Portuguese and Africans) was mulattos; in North America, there was much less racial mixing and more racial profiling; the slaves in North America had less rights than those in the Caribbean and Brazil; they worked more on tobacco, cotton, rice, and indigo plantations (rather than sugar)
Mulattoes
People of African and European descent
Settler colonies
Colonies, such as those in South Africa, New Zealand, Algeria, Kenya, and Hawaii, where minority European populations lived among majority indigenous peoples.
Siberia
A region of central and eastern Russia, stretching from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, known for its mineral resources and for being a place of political exile
Yasak
Tribute that Russian rulers demanded from the native peoples of Siberia, most often in the form of fur
Qing dynasty China
The last imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Ming Dynasty and succeeded by the people's republic. Formed the territorial base for the modern Chinese state. Founded in 1644 by the Manchus and ruled China for more than 260 years, until 1912. Expanded China's borders to include Taiwan, Tibet, Chinese Central Asia, and Mongolia.
Mughal empire
Muslim state (1526-1857) exercising dominion over most of India in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (p. 536)
Akbar
-1556-1605 -constructed house of worship -outstanding military and administrative talents -taught respect for the Hindu subjects -tries to start with social changes -regulates the consumption of alcohol, gets away with child marriages, allows for the remarriage of widows, went away with Sati, opened market days for women -invented his own religion: Din-I-Lahi
Aurangzeb
Mughal emperor in India and great-grandson of Akbar 'the Great', under whom the empire reached its greatest extent, only to collapse after his death. He wished to purify Islam of Hindu influences; incessant warfare exhausted the empire despite military successes; he died in 1707. Reversed Akbar's tolerant policies and imposed Islamic supremacy.
Ottoman empire
Centered in Constantinople, the Turkish imperial state that conquered large amounts of land in the Middle East, North Africa, and the Balkans, and fell after World War I. Was at its height in the 16th/17th centuries. (1299 - 1923)
Constantinople
A large and wealthy city that was the imperial capital of the Byzantine empire and later the Ottoman empire, now known as Istanbul
Devshirme
'Selection' in Turkish. The system by which boys from Christian communities were taken by the Ottoman state to serve as Muslim soldiers. They were required to learn Turkish and were usually converted to Islam.
Little Ice Age and General Crisis
Temporary but significant cooling period between 1300- 1800CE accompanied by wide temperature fluctuations, droughts, and storms, causing famines and dislocation.
Constantinople, 1453
The capital, and almost the only outpost left of the Byzantine Empire, fell to the army of the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II "the Conqueror," an event that marked the end of Christian Byzantium.
Rise of the West
-15th-18th centuries involved distant explorations and conquests redefining the relationships among world societies -the new world relatiosnhops after 1450 spelled a new peiod of world history -the americas and other world areas were joined to the world network -trade became so signifcant that new relationships emerged among socities
maritime power
-Europeans became more aware of the outside world around the 12th century -the crusades and the contacts made during the Mongol Empire spurred interest improved technology made travel possible
Potrtugal
-Christian missionary Zeal, the excitement of discovery and a thirst for wealth motivated explorations -Portuguese vessels searching for a route to India -Vasco de Gama reached India in 1497 -1514 the Portuguese reached Indonesia and China -One Portuguese voyage was blown of course and reached Brazil
Spain
-Spain followed the lead of Portugal -1492 Columbus reached the Americas and gets his ideas of the world being round from the Muslims -Spain gained papal approval for its claims over Latin America with Brazil as the exception -Magellan began a Spnaish voyage that circumnavigated the world -Spain claims the Philippine's as a reult of Magellan's voyage, after he dies he is given the credit to navigating their world
World economy
-Europe's maritime activity had 3 major consequences -creation of a new international pool vor exchange of food, disease, and manufactured products -the forming of a more inclusive world economy -opening some parts of the world to Western colonization
trade
-core nations- northern European nations increased trade in the dependent zones -rue of trade between Western and Eastern nations import grains and exported manufactured goods
Moscow
-refused to pay tribute to the Mongols -Ivan III leads the refusal -results in war and therefore grants their freedom from the mongols
boyars
russian nobles -particularly ones that withheld their power from Ivan IV
Cossaks
-peasants that have farming and military skills -encouraged them to settles in these new conquered lands -these conquests gave more agricultural opportunities for the population and job and labor
Westernization
-process of becoming more like the West in their culture; more modern
enlightenment
-brought to Russia by Catherine the Great -philosophical writers and thinkers -challenging the existing governments, religion, and politics -brings in Western thinkers -French Revolution breaks out and the French monarcht is overthrown and the whole family is beheaded -scares Catherine the Great so kicks out all the enlightenment
Serfdom
-deeply rooted in the peasant culture of Russia -hereditary, no social climbing -almost slaves could be bought sold, labored on large fields -95% of Russia is rural, agricultural -nobles prevent any commercial class down -don't advance their agricultural technolgy, they don't need too -peasants aren't motivated to make more -more advanced cultures are becoming manufactures -didn't want to let their serfs fo to become industralized -lots of constraints -people wanted to let serfdom go
Mughal Dynasty
-Turkic Muslim people -Babur is the creator, 1526 invades India -model their tactics through the Ottoman empire -gunpowder will put them in advantage; adopted from the ottomans -Akbar becomes ruler ar the age of 13, after Babur
Babur
-takes Turkic army through Hindu Kush and down into India -wants money, quick score -someone movies into their home while they were away so forced to stay there
Din-I-Lahi
-blended elements from Hindu and Islam -very popular during his empire while he was alive -fell apart after his death
Position of women
-Mumtaz Mahal: could control her husband -if the women could contol thier husband they had powr through them -Nur Jahan was able to rule India through a faction -widow marriage dies out after Akbar -Sati was popular among the upper class -the birth of a girl was an auspicious event -the dowry of marriage
Mughal decline
-Aurangzeb: takes over the empire as it's declining -2 major mistakes that hasten the decline -trie to expand to all of India, wagers, war and has to raise taxes -didn't like all of the Hindu influence, created a lot of laws to be more strict -didn't pay attention to the growing autonomy of local leaders
Islam's decline
-ignored the rising European threat, didn't respect it -didn't get involved in the new European advances -the Europeans weaken the Muslim economic base -cutting out the Muslims, maritime routes -the new world money brought damaging inflation
Mercantilism
An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought, to the benefit of their mother country
What was the process of European state building in the Americas
The British, French, and Dutch had launched colonial settlements along the eastern coast of North America, expanding their empires to encompass most of the Americas.
What were the motivations for European exploration?
-After 1200, European elites wanted better access to the rich Eurasian commerce -America had large amounts of natural resources, and agricultural land -Rivalries of competing European states -Wanted to avoid reliance on Muslim intermediaries; direct access to Asian wealth -Missionaries inspired by crusading zeal to enlarge the realm of Christendom -Minorities searched for a new life -We came here to serve God and the King, and also to get rich
What were the consequences of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires?
-Some of the Aztecs had resented Mexica domination and had joined the Spanish conquest -attacked Tenochtitlan with many thousands of Tlaxcalans, former subjects of the Aztecs, and after their defeat, tens of thousands of Aztecs joined Cortez -Much of the Inca elite welcomed Spanish invaders as liberators -Spanish military victories were mainly supported by alliances of the local peoples
Spanish had brought along germs, ravaged populations
What were the demographic effects of European diseases on the Americas?
-Pre-Colombian, the population was 60-80 million -Natives had no resistance to smallpox, measles, typhus, influenza, malaria, and yellow fever -loss up to 90% of population -Central Mexico went from 10-20 million to 1 million within 50 years of Colombus
What was the General Crisis?
-China, Europe, and North America experienced record cold winters -Difficult weather conditions accentuated other stresses in societies, leading to widespread famines, epidemics, uprisings and wars causing millions of casualties -lead to the collapse of the Ming dynasty in China -Europe, severe droughts, ruined crops in regions such as China, in 1637-1641 -Constant warfare in Europe -Civil war in Mughal India -Aztec Empire in Mexico experienced severe droughts in 1639-1645, leading to food prices spiking and leaving many people without food and water, promoted Mexico to try and declare independence from Spain
The Carribean regions in the 1640s experienced torrential rains and lead to explosions of mosquito populations spreading yellow fever and malaria
Colombian Exchange
the transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the Americas and Europe, Asia, and Africa
What was the global economic effects of the Colombian exchange?
-The importation of animals, such as horses, pigs, cattle, goats, sheep allowed for ranching economies -American foods such as corn potates and cassava provided the nutritional foundation for population growth, and provided cheap and nutritious food for million, such as in Ireland, China, and Africa
What was the cultural effects of the Colombian exchange?
Horses transformed native societies, ditching farming to hunt bison, forming a cowboy culture. Male dominated hunting and warrior culture emerged, and women lost much of their role as food producers. -American foods such as corn, potatoes, and cassava provided the nutritional foundation for population growth, and provided cheap and nutritious food for a million, such as in Ireland, China, and Africa
What was the envirnomental effects of the Colombian exchange?
What was the impact of American plants on places in Africa?
The importation of corn was used as cheap food for human cargo in the transatlantic trade, connecting Africa with the rest of the world
What was the impact of American plants on places in Asia?
In China, corn, peanuts, and sweet potatoes were used to sustain China's population explosion, accounting for 20% of China's food and tobacco had taken root, with manuals instructing on different smoking techniques
What was the impact of American plants on places in Europe?
Corn and potatoes helped raise populations from 60 million in 1400 to 390 million in 1900, providing cheap and nutritious foods for millions of workers, especially in Ireland, where the potato allowed the population to grow
What was the long term effects of the Colombian exchange?
It gave rise to an interacting Atlantic world that connected Euroipe, Africa, and North and South America -Africans and Americans experienced social disruption, slavery, disease and death -Western Europeans got information, precious metals, raw resources, crops, slaves, financial profits, colonial markets, and the foundation of Europe's Industrial Revolution The colonies in the Americas thrust the marginal Western Europeans into a central and commanding role on the world stage
What were the similarities between European colonial rule in the Caribbean and North American to European colonial rule in South America?
They hadn't conquer and govern established societies, bur rather generated new societies and had a system known as mercantilism.
What were the differences between European colonial rule in the Caribbean and North American to European colonial rule in South America?
-Some colonizing powers had contrasting societies, with semi-feudal and Catholic Spain to the rapidly changing Protestant England,
The densely populated and urbanized Mersoamerican and Andean civilizations to the sparsely populated villages of North America
How were American Indian women treated by native men and Europeans after the European conquest?
Spanish men married elite native women, but far more women had experienced sexual violence and abuse, and was a tragedy and humiliation for native and enslaved men as they were unable to protect their women
What were some systems of cohered labor?
Colonial authority had forced labor under -encomienda -hacienda
encomienda
a grant by the Spanish Crown to a colonist in America conferring the right to demand tribute and forced labor from the Indian inhabitants of an area, close to slavery
Hacienda
A system where private owners of large estates directly employed native workers, known as peons, had low wages, high taxes and large debts,
How were non-elites treated?
They were subject to gross abuse and exploitation -Primary labor force on the mines and estates of the Spansih Empire
render tribute payments to their Spanish overlords
What were the demographic features and effects of African slavery in the Americas and in Africa?
-Slaves were working in horrendous conditions -High death rate 5-10% yearly -Imported slaves from Africa to American plantations -Gave plantations, a very diverse ethnic and racial makeup
How was slavery in Latin America and the Carribean and slavery in British North America similar and different?
-Slaves in Latin America were mostly imported, where slaves in North America reproduce themselves -More slaves were voluntary, set free in Brazil, had more economic opportunities,
North American defined any African ancestors as black where in Brazil people were considered mixed race -North America had less racial mixing
How was the Russian Empire developed?
-Lengthy process involving Russian state, officials, and variety of private interests such as merchants, hunters and adventurers -The Worlds largest empire -Offered more and better land to fewer lords and official, economic and social improvements to migrants -Conquest
What do all empires do?
-Levy taxes -interact with outside societies
What were demographic changes over time?
-The Russian Empire had had large influx of Russian settlers overwhelming natives people -in 1720, 700,000 Russians lived in Siberia, and Siberians comprised of 30% of the total population, and dropped to 14% in the 19th century -Loss of hunting ground, pasturelands to Russian agricultural settlers rendered people dependent on grain, sugar, tea, tobacco, and alcohol
Siberia and the steppes were incorporated into the Russian state, and were Russified
Compare the expansion of land based empires such as Russia and China to the expansion of sea-based empires such as Spain in the Americas.
The expansion of land based empires were based off of the pursuit of goods and through conquest, much like the expansion of Spain, which expanded through conquest with the indigenous people.
What were the features of the Qing dynsaty?
-Not from China, hailing from Manchuria -facilitated by widespread famine and peasant rebellions -forbid intermarriage between themselves and the Chinese -mastered Chinese language, Confucian teachings and used Chinese bureaucratic techniques -Did not seek to assimilate local people to Chinese culture -Showed considerable respect to different cultures in the region, going so far as to excuse taxes and labor services -restricted entry of Chinese merchants for fear of the soft and civilized Chinese ways would erode the Mongol fighting spirit
What were the important effects of Chinese expansion in era 1450-1750?
-The Qing imperial state greatly expanded Chinese territory and added a small important minority of non-Chinese people -Under Qing or Russian rule, the silk road became backward and impoverished, and land trade took a backseat to oceanic travel.
What were the religious policies of different empires in Eurasia and the Americas?
-Americas, -Spanish had forced conversion, Christanity of Catholic Spain -Enlgish hadn't, as they were Protestant, -In Eurasia, -Russia had adopted the cultures of conquered people, forming their own identity, and had Westernized, -Qing dynasty had allowed for conquered people to keep their religions, and had respected them, -Mughal empire had initially softened Hindu restrictions, but later had clamped down Islam superiority, -the Ottomans had spread Islam, but had allowed for religious autonomy
An empire that unites South Asia is _?
an exception to the typical organization of South Asian politics
What were the Ottoman Empire's political features?
-Sultan had roles of Turkic warrior prince, Muslim caliph, and a conquering emperor, serving as chief defender of the faith -Central Asian pastoral women lost independence, open association with men and political influence -Women weren't counted in imperial censuses -Had influence on political matters and had property rights
What were the Ottoman Empire's social features?
-Turkish women were veiled -90% of Anatolia were Turks and Muslim speakers by 1500 -Had lower taxes and allowed for autonomy in religious circles
What were the Ottoman Empire's economic features?
-Settled down -Banking and trading -had a process known as devshirme
What were the interactions between Muslims and Christians in the Ottoman Empire?
The Ottomans were tolerant with Christans, allowing for Christan communities to gain autonomy, and had spread Islamic faith to conquered empires, and had a sizeable Muslim population, they had co-existed but Muslims ruled over the Christans.
What was a major turning point for the political and cultural history of Europe, North Africa and Southwest Asia?
The Muslim conquest of Constantinople
How did empires deal with various religious and ethnic groups in the period 1450-1750?
-The Ottomans had spread fear and cooperation across Europe and Christans, -The Qing allowed for the groups to maintain their culture, and respected them -Russia had been converted and converted the conquered people -Spain had forced conversion and had a social hierarchy with ethnic groups at the bottom
What was Russia's westernization process?
-Started by Peter the Great -vast administrative changes -enlargement and modernization of Russian military forces, -a new educational system for the sons of noblemen -dozens of manufacturing enterprises -Nobles were instructed to dress in European styles -Shave their beards
Protestant England
-Far less interested in spreading Christianity among natives -Put great emphasis on reading the bible, raising literacy rates
Catholic Spain
-Well funded and large -Interested in converted natives to Christianity y
Puritan Christianity
-Became heads of family farms -reinforced largely unlimited male authority
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