AP Psych Unit 2: Cognitive Psychology

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90 Terms

1

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

<p>a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds</p>
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2

Encoding

the processing of information so that it can be stored

<p>the processing of information so that it can be stored</p>
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3

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

<p>memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"</p>
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4

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

<p>a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second</p>
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5

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection; processed automatically

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6

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

<p>the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.</p>
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7

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

<p>A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations</p>
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8

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

<p>the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.</p>
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9

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

<p>tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well</p>
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10

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

<p>A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.</p>
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11

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

<p>tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well</p>
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12

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

<p>a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test</p>
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13

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

<p>the process of getting information out of memory storage</p>
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14

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

<p>activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten</p>
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15

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

<p>a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory</p>
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16

semantic memory

memory of general knowledge and information

<p>memory of general knowledge and information</p>
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17

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

<p>the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place</p>
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18

memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

<p>the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes</p>
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19

infantile amnesia

inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place before an early age; usually age 4

<p>inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place before an early age; usually age 4</p>
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20

Long Term Potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory; strengthening of neural networks

<p>an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory; strengthening of neural networks</p>
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21

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

<p>our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list</p>
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22

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

<p>an inability to form new memories</p>
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23

retrograde amnesia

loss of memories from our past

<p>loss of memories from our past</p>
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24

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

<p>the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information</p>
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25

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

<p>the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information</p>
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26

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

<p>a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again</p>
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27

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

<p>when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event</p>
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28

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

<p>faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined</p>
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29

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

<p>a mental image or best example of a category</p>
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30

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

<p>narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution</p>
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31

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions

<p>expands the number of possible problem solutions</p>
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32

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

<p>A methodical, logical rule or step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.</p>
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33

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

<p>a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms</p>
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34

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

<p>a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence</p>
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35

representative heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case

<p>a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case</p>
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36

availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind

<p>making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind</p>
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37

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

<p>tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them</p>
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38

Framing

the way an issue is posed; can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

<p>the way an issue is posed; can significantly affect decisions and judgments.</p>
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39

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

<p>the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use</p>
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40

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

<p>our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning</p>
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41

phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

<p>in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit</p>
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42

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

<p>in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)</p>
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43

G-factor

A general ability, proposed by Spearman as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity

<p>A general ability, proposed by Spearman as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity</p>
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44

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scales and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

<p>a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scales and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale</p>
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45

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

<p>a test designed to assess what a person has learned</p>
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46

IQ

measure of intelligence; the average is 100; there are many definitions of this attribute, including multiple and crystallized

<p>measure of intelligence; the average is 100; there are many definitions of this attribute, including multiple and crystallized</p>
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47

Flynn effect

the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years

<p>the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years</p>
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48

Reliability

consistency of measurement

<p>consistency of measurement</p>
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49

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

<p>the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to</p>
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50

Crystalized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

<p>our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age</p>
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51

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

<p>our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood</p>
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52

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance and capacity to learn

<p>a test designed to predict a person's future performance and capacity to learn</p>
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53

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

<p>encoding that requires attention and conscious effort</p>
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54

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

<p>unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings</p>
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55

Procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things

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56

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

<p>the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system</p>
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57

mnemonic devices

techniques for using associations to memorize and retrieve information

<p>techniques for using associations to memorize and retrieve information</p>
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58

Categorization

a cognitive process used to organize information by placing it into larger groupings of information

<p>a cognitive process used to organize information by placing it into larger groupings of information</p>
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59

Massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption (cramming)

<p>a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption (cramming)</p>
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60

Distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

<p>spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods</p>
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61

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

<p>the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice</p>
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62

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

<p>organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically</p>
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63

Hierarchy

a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority.

<p>a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority.</p>
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64

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

<p>the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage</p>
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65

autobiographical memory

the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

<p>the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story</p>
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66

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

<p>a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning</p>
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67

context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

<p>The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.</p>
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68

Testing effect

Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered.

<p>Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered.</p>
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69

State dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

<p>The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.</p>
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70

Metacognition

thinking about thinking

<p>thinking about thinking</p>
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71

Mood Congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

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72

Forgetting curve

a graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time

<p>a graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time</p>
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73

Dementia

a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes

<p>a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes</p>
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74

Repression

keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

<p>keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious</p>
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75

Imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

<p>a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred</p>
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76

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

<p>a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past</p>
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77

Creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

<p>the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas</p>
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78

Grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

<p>in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others</p>
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79

Syntax

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

<p>The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.</p>
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80

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

<p>the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning</p>
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81

cooing stage

at about 2 months the infant begins to make vowel-like sounds

<p>at about 2 months the infant begins to make vowel-like sounds</p>
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82

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

<p>beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language</p>
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83

one word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

<p>the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words</p>
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84

Telegraphic stage

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram--'go car'--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting 'auxiliary' words

<p>early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram--'go car'--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting 'auxiliary' words</p>
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85

Multiple Intelligence (ability) theory

Howard Gardener's theory that intelligence is composed of 7 different abilities or types of intelligence that individuals have varying degrees of competence in.

<p>Howard Gardener's theory that intelligence is composed of 7 different abilities or types of intelligence that individuals have varying degrees of competence in.</p>
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86

Mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

<p>a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance</p>
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87

Growth mindset

the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow

<p>the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow</p>
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88

Fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

<p>the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change</p>
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89

Stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

<p>a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype</p>
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90

Predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

<p>The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.</p>
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