History - Empire, development of imperialism (expansion and imperial/colonial policy in india and africa

Why was India so important for the British empire and how is it important to our course?

• The population is large, resulting in more taxes, more labour power and more soldiers

• lots of raw materials like chintz to trade

• had major prestige and respect

India is important to our course as it’s policy system replicates in many parts of the empire.

Economic advantages of India

• trading oppurtunities in india, source of spices. pepper could be bought for £26,000 in india and sold to Britain for £208,000

• main goods from india included; chintzes, indigo (dyes), rice

How did the East India company expand influence in India?

At the same time the mughal empire was lsoing power, the east india company was setting up in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta. Also, conflicts between hindu and islamic states allowed east india company to take control of these areas.

How did British influence grow in India?

• British control grew in areas after wars e.g sind of 1843

• ‘doctrine of lapse’ Hindu states where the ruler died would ‘lapse’ into British control

• Reforms ‘westernising’ india e.g introduction of British education systems, allowing in British religious missionaries

What was the situation in India in the 1850’s?

• population of 280 million - 10x bigger than Britain

• 70% hindu, 20% muslim

• sikh and small christian population

• 16x bigger than the uk

• small primary industry of substance farming

What was the cause of the first indian mutiny?

started in may 1857 by refusal of sepoys (Indian soldier) to use greased cartages (using cow oil which went against the hindu belief that the cow is sacred and using pig oil that was against islam)

other issues that caused the mutiny consisted of; -changes in pay and conditions -requirement to serve abroad breaking caste rules (outcasts sepoys) -British military presence weak in 1857/8 due to crimean war. 23,000/150,000 soldiers in bengal army

How much of an impact did the mutiny have?

Overall, the mutiny failed to gain full support across india with the majority of Indian prices and sikhs staying loyal to Britain. However, the mutiny still took over a year to control

What were the consequences of the indian mutiny?

• British authorities took action to punish the rebels in a brutal way to prevent further uprising

• the east india company was abolished and india was in direct British rule with the government of india act 1858 and Victoria became “empress of india” in 1876

• reform of Indian army, ratio of british to indian soldiers went from 1:5 to 1:2, more Gurkha and sikh troops as they were loyal

• separated the british royal elite from the indians, harder british authority to other colonies

How was India being run from London?

The prime minister would appoint someone in their cabinet to be the secretary of state for India, the secretary of state for India ran the india office made of civil servants and alongside this, the council of India would advise the secretary of state for India

How was India being run domestically?

The secretary of state for India would appoint a viceroy. This role consisted of running different sectors of India in a similar style to england e.g finance, healthcare, law. The viceroy would appoint provencial governer and governance on the ground was run by the indian civil service around 1000 British admisistrators

How was government in India?

• Hierarchy of ranks from provencial governer to local district officer

• Challanging entrance exam but good career prospects and status

• hard work, isolated, required inititve and stamina

• open to all graduates (although exam was in english and in London)

Why would the Indian population comply with British?

• rulers of ‘princley states’ could maintain autonomy

• oppurtunties for economic, social advancement through education and employement

• cultural familiarty of hierarchy

How were the princely states run?

• it was 35% of the subcontinent

• Population in them varied from 14 million and a few hundred

• The princes had authority over their subjects

• They had treaties with GB: they would be under protection and with British political officers being present in states

• Britain would intervene if a state misgoverned

How did British rule effect the caste system?

• there was cultural familiarity between small, Elite class system

• The British were “above caste”

How did the military change after the Indian mutiny

-62/72 bengal regiments disbanded with British replacement

-British officers had to show greater respect for Indian culture

How did Britian maintain security of rule?

• investment in new railways 3000 miles built by 1870, this enabled rapid deployment of troops and had positive economic effects

• Indian army became highly trained and professional force. 7000 troops to defeat Egyptian revolt in 1882

• Funded by Indian taxes

What were some political policies introduced towards India?

• Introduction of India government act of 1858

• Revenge on Indian mutineers

• Indian law system created after 1858 that was similar to English law

• Doctrine of lapse was removed as a policy to give a false sense of autonomy in India

What were some economic policies introduced towards India?

• East India company was brought under the British crown

• Tea plantations grew from 1 in 1851 to 295 by 1871

• India provided a profitable market for British goods

• Railways grew in the 1850’s, 15,000 miles by 1880

What were some military policies introduced towards India

• ratio of British soldiers went from 1:5 to 1:2

• Indian regiments were not permitted to carry artilitary

• new army training to respect sepoy beliefs

What were some social/cultural policies introduced towards India?

• British missionary work was discouraged

• Hundreds of schools were founded, tens of thousands were educated and 1/3 went into public administration

• The British public were outraged by tales of treatment of Indians in the mutiny

• Universities were set up in Bombay, Calcutta and madras after 1857

What were some of the continuity of British policies after the Indian mutiny?

• Education systems were set up in 1835

• Trade of goods in India like chintz, jute and cotton

• Still not enough heavy machinery made in India

Reasons for British expansion in Africa

• there were greater opportunities within Africa discovered by missionaries and explorers

• New economic pressures, needs more resources for industrial growth, the European markets became saturated and depressed (long depression 1873-96)

• Supported growth in India

• Strategic issues between rival France and declining ally of ottoman empire

What grew after 1885?

Africas expansion “scramble for Africa”

How was Egypt ruled before the Suez Canal?

• Egypt was under ottoman rule from 1517 with Egypt having ‘dominion’

• Egyptian rulers called ‘khedive’ organised Egypt on behalf of the ottoman sultan

How did construction of the Suez Canal develop?

In the 1840s France began investigating the possibility of a canal and tried to encourage Egypt to break away from the Ottoman Empire but khedive Abbas 1st refused

In 1854 Abbas 1st was assassinated and the French diplomat Ferdinand De Lesseps obtained Sa’id 1st’s permission to construct

In 1869 the canal was fully constructed for ships of all nations

How was the Suez Canal operated and how did Britain attain mass profits from the canal?

• The Suez Canal was operated by both Egypt and France but from the start it operated with financial loss

• Khedive Isma’il blocked French plans to increase tolls but this built huge depts to banks

• By 1875 80% of ships using the canal were British, the canal was strategically and economically important

• Isma’il khedive sold his share of the canal to Benjamin Disraeli using £4 million from Rothschild banking to secure 44% of the canal

How did Egyptian dept grow?

British banks gave isma’il loans as he wanted to develop Egyptian infrastructure. This meant that 1000 miles of railway were laid and a port was built in Alexandria.

However, Egyptian dept grew from 1863-79 from £3 million to £100 million. Interest rates grew from 7% to 20%

This led to potential economic collapse

What was the plan to save the Egyptian economy?

In 1876 the conservative minister Stephen cave was sent to investigate

-he reported that the crisis was due to poor economic management however if fixed loans could be payed

-In 1878 the Anglo-French rescue plan was created, France would be in control of domestic government spending and Britain would control raising revenue

-This pressured The sultan to replace Isma’il with Tewfik in 1879

-interest rates cut to 5% and sales tax were introduced on food and goods but gov employees wages cut

What were the consequences of the Egyptian dept crisis?

There was an increase of poverty and deprivation due to budget cuts

This increased tensions and in 1879 a military rebellion took place and national movement grew.

In 1882 colonel Ahmed Arabi pasha led a major revolt to end Turkish control and British-French economic control, in June that year 50 Europeans were killed in riots

What happened after the Egyptian riots?

Liberal leader Gladstone ordered the formal occupation of Egypt and the rebellion was crushed in the battle of Tel-el-Kebir

Egypt was made a protectorate ‘veiled protectorate’

What was the economic argument for takeover?

• Egyptian cotton it’s important for British textile industry with supplies disrupted in American civil war

• There was a 44% stake hold into Suez Canal and 80% of ships went through were British

• British loans to Isma’il

Britains investment was important to protect trade and it was vital for British economy

What was the strategic and economic reasons for Egyptian takeover?

• the Middle East was important for Britains interests and the Ottoman Empire controlled the route to India

• Concerns of Russian expansion

• Concerns of French expansion

It was important to protect new trade route and block expansion

What was the strategic-defence reasons for takeover?

• the suez allowed the rapid deployment of troops to India and from India

What was the political argument for Egyptian takeover?

• their was threat of Arabi’s nationalist movement

• Would threaten British interests in Egypt

What role did Gladstone have on Egyptian takeover?

• he was determined to create his version of the liberal party

• He opposed Disraeli’s foreign policy and opposed the canal shares and that he committed atrocities against Christian’s

• He had to occupy Egypt after revolt

  however this is less convincing as he had a 37% investment in Egypt

How did Britain become involved in Sudan?

• In 1821 Sudan was conquered by Egypt, the Sudenese were upset because of the mismanagment of the country

• England became the ‘de facto’ government of sudan which grew more issues

Who was the mahdi? What did he do?

The Mahdi is a figure within Islam as he is descended from Muhammad and will appear at the end of times.

Muhammad Ahmed ibn Abd Allah born in 1844 claimed in 1881 announced he was the Mahdi

He created a religious movement and Jihad ‘holy war’ on the ottoman and Egyptian

Forces raised defeated two Egyptian military attempts to capture the Mahdi

What did the British do about the Mahdi?

The foreign office were reluctant go be drawn into Sudan so there was only a small force of diplomatic presence in the area

Why did the Mahdi’s influence grow?

• he empathised the economic exploitation by the ottomans and Egyptians and eventually the British

• He provided a unifying cause of religious belief to purify Islam

What were the terms given to the Mahdi supporters and troops?

His forces were referred by the British as the dervishes, this was a group of Sufi Muslims who accept material poverty in order to reach allah. Known for whirling dances

The forces called themselves the ansar who were loyal followers of the prophet Muhammad

How did the Mahdist revolt develop?

• In June 1882 Egyptian forces of 4000 where armed with modern weapons to overwhelm the ansar but the ansar defeated them.

• At the same Time the Egyptian revolt was happening leading to British occupation

• In november 1883, colonel William hicks with some British officers lead 11,000 men to fight 40,000 Ansaf at El Obeid

• All but 500 soldiers died with Hicks decapitated

What was Britains reaction to the Mahdi’st revolt?

• Gladstone was reluctant to have action he ordered British advisers to get the Egyptian government to leave Sudan

• The Egyptians requested an officer to help withdraw and they hired Charles Gordon

• He knew Sudan well as he had been general governer from 1877-80

What happened in Khartoum once Gordon arrived?

Gordon arrived in Khartoum on the 18th of February in 1884 to evacuate 7000 troops and 2500 troops

Gordon went against orders and kept fighting force to protect the city

They were under seige and forces were held for a year

What happened whilst Khartoum was under siege?

The government was angry with Gordon and resisted his request for more troops

• This became a major press story leading to public opinion weakened of Gladstone

Eventually Gladstone sends out a relief column of 1400 armed men, on the 17th of January the Column won against 14,000 Mahdists

• the Column reached Khartoum on the 28th of January but were two days late and Gordon was killed and beheaded

What were the political consequences of the Fall of Khartoum?

There was widespread public grief and criticism and Gladstone resigned, it took 11 years to crush rebellion

How did Britains informal empire grow?

Britain relied on an informal system of empire, based on trading relationships backed by military power. This led to political influence

What was the scale of Britains informal empire?

• Latin America made up 10% of all of Britains foreign trade in the late 1800s in countries like Argentina, Peru and Chile

• Britain had trade treaties with Siam (Thailand), Persia (Iran)

• This created tension between foreign competitors

When did the scramble for Africa take place?

• Between 1880 and 1913

• Before 1880s only 10% of Africa controlled by Europeans. By 1900 only 10% was controlled by Africans

What were the strategic causes of the scramble for Africa?

By 1880s Britain was a global economic power, other European countries began to catch up such as;

• France, established some control in Indo-China, countries like Cambodia, Brunei

• Russia, after defeat in crimea it began to influence Afghanistan, India and Japan

• Germany had reunited 1871, had a need to assert its power to rival Britain

What is an economic reason for the scramble for Africa?

The long depression from 1873-1896 from saturated markets in Europe. Africa provided a new source of markets and raw materials

What interests did different European countries have in Africa?

• Britain would formalise its control of the Gold Coast in 1874, they expanded their control in Southern Africa in Zulu and Boer territories in 1877-81. They occupied Egypt in 1882

• France and Portugal expanded their influence from countries like Tunisia and Angola

• Belgium was ruled by King Leopold 2nd wanted to explore ‘unoccupied Africa’

• Germany in 1884 annexed territory in south west and west Africa

What was the Brussels conference?

In 1876 King leopold held a conference of explorers and geographers and it was supposed to discuss how was the best to support Africa develop like he claimed to be doing in the Congo

It was actually about his own interests in exploiting region for economic gain and he established that Africans were incapable of developing natural resources

What were the impacts of the Brussels conference?

• the conference increased competition

• Leopold hired Henry Stanley (A British explorer) to survey the Congo basin. He was secretly hired to make treaties with chiefs (450 signed)

• This created the Congo state that was 76x bigger than Belgium

How did other European countries become more competitive after the Brussels conflict?

• France sent their own explorer, Pierre de Brazza to create control in Senegal to western Sudan

• Germany hired Gustav Nachtigal to assert claims in Togo and Cameroon

• Britain asserted claims in Niger River and South Africa

Why did the Berlin conference take place?

In November 1884-February 1885, German Chancellor Otto von bismark called a conference to settle competing claims.

Attended by 14 Countries

They established the principle of “effective occupation” claims over new territories will be legitimate if already occupied unless challenged

What were the impacts of the Berlin conference?

They also agreed a ‘general act’ promising,

• free trade in the Congo basin, suppressed slave trade, support for scientific explanation and Christian missionary work, however, no attempt was made to help indigenous populations

• Allowed growth of European control without conflict with 90% control