PSYCH101 EXAM 1

Theory is...

- A story … a map …
- Simplification of descriptions
- A set of principles that EXPLAIN a set of observations.
- Usually includes specification of causation.

Case Study

Closely observe a single person/event/phenomena

Naturalistic observation

Observe what happens NATURALLY

Artificial Observation

Participants are observed in a laboratory setting

Survey

Collect Information about what's out there with NO manipulation or change

Experiment

Manipulate or change something to see what happens next

Survey method

a research design in which researchers obtain descriptive information about a large group of people by studying na select subgroup of them

Population

the overall, large group of people of interest to a researcher conducting a study

Back translation

A method to assure the accuracy of translation by having the research materials translated twice (by different individuals)—first into the second language, and then from the second language back into the first.

Sample

The select subgroup of people contacted by a researcher, who uses information from the sample to draw conclusions about the population as a whole.

Random sample

A sample in which each individual’s inclusion, or not, is determined by a chance process.

Representative Sample

A sample in which the qualities of the individuals included match those of the overall population.

Correlational study

A research design whose aim is to determine the relation between two or more measured variables.

Variable

Any property that fluctuates, such as from person to person or from time to time.

Independent Variable

In an experimental design, any variable that the experimenter manipulates in order to see its effect on another variable.

Dependent Variable

In an experimental design, the variable that is potentially influenced by the manipulation of the independent variable.

Control Group

An experimental condition that does not receive the experimental treatment.

Random Assignment

A process in which participants are allocated to conditions of an experiment on an entirely chance basis.

Confound

A factor other than the independent variable that might create differences between experimental conditions.

Social Norm

A socially shared belief about the type of behavior that is acceptable in any given setting.

Group Dynamics

Psychological processes involving communication, conflict, and pressure among group members.

Conformity

The altering of one’s behavior so that it matches the norms of a group.

Groupthink

A decision-making phenomenon in which group members are so motivated to avoid disagreement, and to reach a shared decision, that they do not properly evaluate the quality of the decision they are reaching.

Compliance

Agreement to an explicit request.

Foot-in-the-door technique

A compliance strategy in which someone first makes a small request, in order to later convince people to comply with a larger request.

Disrupt-then-reframe technique

A compliance strategy in which targets of compliance efforts are distracted, so they cannot formulate negative thoughts about a compliance request.

Obedience

Adherence to the instructions and commands of an authority figure.

Personality

The relatively consistent, observable patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving that distinguish people from one another, and the inner psychological systems that explain these patterns.

Personality theory

A comprehensive scientific model of human nature and individual differences.

Personality structures

Those elements of personality that remain consistent over significant periods of time.

Personality processes

Individuals’ distinctive patterns of change in psychological experience and behavior that occur from one moment to the next.

Personality assessment

A structured procedure for learning about an individual’s distinctive psychological qualities.

Psychoanalytic theory

Freud’s theory of personality, also called psychodynamic theory.

ID

In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the personality structure that motivates people to satisfy basic bodily needs.

Ego

In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the mental system that balances the demands of the id with the opportunities and constraints of the real world.

Superego

In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the personality structure that represents society’s moral and ethical rules.

Levels of consciousness

Variations in the degree to which people are aware, and can become aware, of the contents of their minds.

Conscious

In Freud’s analysis of levels of consciousness, the regions of mind containing the mental contents of which you are aware at any given moment.

Preconscious

In Freud’s analysis of levels of consciousness, regions of mind containing ideas you can easily bring to awareness.

Unconscious

In Freud’s analysis of levels of consciousness, regions of mind containing ideas you are not aware of and generally cannot become aware of even if you wanted to.

Psychodynamic processes

In Freud’s theory, changes in mental energy that occur as energy flows from one personality structure to another, or is directed to desired objects.

Terror management theory

A theory proposing that death is so terrifying that thinking about it increases feelings of identification with institutions (e.g., religions, nations) that will survive one’s death.

Psychosexual stage

In Freud’s theory of psychological development, a period during which the child focuses on obtaining sensual gratification through a particular part of the body.

Oral stage

In Freud’s theory of psychological development, the developmental stage (ages 0 to 18 months) during which children seek gratification through the mouth.

Anal stage

In Freud’s theory of psychological development, the developmental stage (18 months to 3 1/2 years) during which children experience gratification from the release of tension resulting from the control and elimination of feces.

Phallic stage

In Freud’s theory of psychological development, the developmental stage ( 3 1/2 to 6 years) during which the source of gratification is the genitals.

Latency stage

In Freud’s theory of psychological development, the developmental stage during which sexual desires are repressed into the unconscious until puberty.

Genital stage

In Freud’s theory of psychological development, the developmental stage that starts at puberty, signaling the reawakening of sexual desire.

Fixation

In Freud’s theory of psychological development, a disruption in development occurring when an individual experiences either too little or too much gratification at a psychosexual stage.

Defense mechanism

A mental strategy that, in psychoanalytic theory, is devised by the ego to protect against anxiety.

Repression

A defense mechanism in which traumatic memories are kept in the unconscious, thereby blocked from awareness.

Sublimation

A defense mechanism in which an instinct toward sex or aggression is redirected to the service of a socially acceptable goal.

Denial

Failure to admit the existence or true nature of emotionally threatening information

Rationalization

Formulating a logical reason or excuse that hides one’s true motives or feelings

Projection

Concluding that other people possess undesirable qualities that actually exist in oneself

Reaction formation

Expressing thoughts and behaviors that are the opposite of one’s true motives

Displacement

Redirecting mental energy from a threatening target to an unrelated and less threatening target

Free association method

A method of both personality assessment and therapy devised by Freud in which psychologists encourage people to let their thoughts flow freely and say whatever comes to mind.

Projective test

Personality assessment tool in which items are ambiguous and psychologists are interested in the way test takers interpret the ambiguity, “projecting” elements of their own personality onto the test.

Humanistic theory

An approach to personality that focuses on people’s thoughts and feelings about themselves and the ways that interpersonal relationships shape these feelings.

Self

In humanistic theories, such as that of Rogers, an organized set of self-perceptions of our personal qualities; people’s conceptions of who they are.

Actual self

People’s perceptions of psychological qualities they possess currently, in the present.

Ideal self

People’s perceptions of psychological qualities that they optimally would possess in the future.

Condition of worth

In Rogers’s theory of personality, a behavioral requirement imposed by others, such as parents, as a condition for being fully valued, loved, and respected

Unconditional positive regard

A display of respect and acceptance toward others that is consistent and not dependent on their meeting behavioral requirements.

Self-esteem

A person’s overall sense of self-worth

Life Energy

Motivate the preservation of life and reproduction.

Death Energy

Oppose the life energies. Freud believed that humans possess an instinctive awareness of their mortality and a mental energy that motivates them to attain a final resting place

Extraversion

A tendency to approach the social and material world in an energetic manner
Characteristics: Sociable, active, assertive

Agreeableness

An orientation toward positive, prosocial feelings and behaviors when interacting with others
Characteristics:Altruistic, trusting, modest

Conscientiousness

A tendency to control inappropriate emotions and impulses and to follow social rules
Characteristics: Reliable, hardworking, organized

Neuroticism

A tendency to experience negative emotions
Characteristics: Anxious, nervous, sad

Openness to experience

An orientation toward a complex mental and behavioral life, and a diversity of experiences
Characteristics: Creative, artistic, liberal

Lexical approach

A perspective on the task of identifying personality traits which presumes that all significant individual differences among people will be represented by naturally occurring words in everyday language.

Factor analysis

A statistical technique that identifies patterns in large sets of correlations.

Crowd

Large gatherings of people who do not necessarily know one another

Group

Collections of people who know and communicate with each other, have distinctive roles (e.g., a group leader), and may work together toward a common goal.

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward individuals based on their group membership, involving disparaging thoughts and feelings about individuals in a group.

Stereotype threat

A negative emotional reaction that occurs when people recognize the possibility of their confirming a negative stereotype about their group.

Hypothesis

A prediction about the result of a study

Diffusion of responsibility

Lowered feelings of personal obligation to respond to someone in need, because others might respond instead.