Studied by 14 people
Theory is...
A story … a map …
Simplification of descriptions
A set of principles that EXPLAIN a set of observations.
Usually includes specification of causation.
Case Study
Closely observe a single person/event/phenomena
Naturalistic observation
Observe what happens NATURALLY
Artificial Observation
Participants are observed in a laboratory setting
Survey
Collect Information about what's out there with NO manipulation or change
Experiment
Manipulate or change something to see what happens next
Survey method
a research design in which researchers obtain descriptive information about a large group of people by studying na select subgroup of them
Population
the overall, large group of people of interest to a researcher conducting a study
Back translation
A method to assure the accuracy of translation by having the research materials translated twice (by different individuals)—first into the second language, and then from the second language back into the first.
Sample
The select subgroup of people contacted by a researcher, who uses information from the sample to draw conclusions about the population as a whole.
Random sample
A sample in which each individual’s inclusion, or not, is determined by a chance process.
Representative Sample
A sample in which the qualities of the individuals included match those of the overall population.
Correlational study
A research design whose aim is to determine the relation between two or more measured variables.
Variable
Any property that fluctuates, such as from person to person or from time to time.
Independent Variable
In an experimental design, any variable that the experimenter manipulates in order to see its effect on another variable.
Dependent Variable
In an experimental design, the variable that is potentially influenced by the manipulation of the independent variable.
Control Group
An experimental condition that does not receive the experimental treatment.
Random Assignment
A process in which participants are allocated to conditions of an experiment on an entirely chance basis.
Confound
A factor other than the independent variable that might create differences between experimental conditions.
Social Norm
A socially shared belief about the type of behavior that is acceptable in any given setting.
Group Dynamics
Psychological processes involving communication, conflict, and pressure among group members.
Conformity
The altering of one’s behavior so that it matches the norms of a group.
Groupthink
A decision-making phenomenon in which group members are so motivated to avoid disagreement, and to reach a shared decision, that they do not properly evaluate the quality of the decision they are reaching.
Compliance
Agreement to an explicit request.
Foot-in-the-door technique
A compliance strategy in which someone first makes a small request, in order to later convince people to comply with a larger request.
Disrupt-then-reframe technique
A compliance strategy in which targets of compliance efforts are distracted, so they cannot formulate negative thoughts about a compliance request.
Obedience
Adherence to the instructions and commands of an authority figure.
Personality
The relatively consistent, observable patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving that distinguish people from one another, and the inner psychological systems that explain these patterns.
Personality theory
A comprehensive scientific model of human nature and individual differences.
Personality structures
Those elements of personality that remain consistent over significant periods of time.
Personality processes
Individuals’ distinctive patterns of change in psychological experience and behavior that occur from one moment to the next.
Personality assessment
A structured procedure for learning about an individual’s distinctive psychological qualities.
Psychoanalytic theory
Freud’s theory of personality, also called psychodynamic theory.
ID
In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the personality structure that motivates people to satisfy basic bodily needs.
Ego
In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the mental system that balances the demands of the id with the opportunities and constraints of the real world.
Superego
In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the personality structure that represents society’s moral and ethical rules.
Levels of consciousness
Variations in the degree to which people are aware, and can become aware, of the contents of their minds.
Conscious
In Freud’s analysis of levels of consciousness, the regions of mind containing the mental contents of which you are aware at any given moment.
Preconscious
In Freud’s analysis of levels of consciousness, regions of mind containing ideas you can easily bring to awareness.
Unconscious
In Freud’s analysis of levels of consciousness, regions of mind containing ideas you are not aware of and generally cannot become aware of even if you wanted to.
Psychodynamic processes
In Freud’s theory, changes in mental energy that occur as energy flows from one personality structure to another, or is directed to desired objects.
Terror management theory
A theory proposing that death is so terrifying that thinking about it increases feelings of identification with institutions (e.g., religions, nations) that will survive one’s death.
Psychosexual stage
In Freud’s theory of psychological development, a period during which the child focuses on obtaining sensual gratification through a particular part of the body.
Oral stage
In Freud’s theory of psychological development, the developmental stage (ages 0 to 18 months) during which children seek gratification through the mouth.
Anal stage
In Freud’s theory of psychological development, the developmental stage (18 months to 3 1/2 years) during which children experience gratification from the release of tension resulting from the control and elimination of feces.
Phallic stage
In Freud’s theory of psychological development, the developmental stage ( 3 1/2 to 6 years) during which the source of gratification is the genitals.
Latency stage
In Freud’s theory of psychological development, the developmental stage during which sexual desires are repressed into the unconscious until puberty.
Genital stage
In Freud’s theory of psychological development, the developmental stage that starts at puberty, signaling the reawakening of sexual desire.
Fixation
In Freud’s theory of psychological development, a disruption in development occurring when an individual experiences either too little or too much gratification at a psychosexual stage.
Defense mechanism
A mental strategy that, in psychoanalytic theory, is devised by the ego to protect against anxiety.
Repression
A defense mechanism in which traumatic memories are kept in the unconscious, thereby blocked from awareness.
Sublimation
A defense mechanism in which an instinct toward sex or aggression is redirected to the service of a socially acceptable goal.
Denial
Failure to admit the existence or true nature of emotionally threatening information
Rationalization
Formulating a logical reason or excuse that hides one’s true motives or feelings
Projection
Concluding that other people possess undesirable qualities that actually exist in oneself
Reaction formation
Expressing thoughts and behaviors that are the opposite of one’s true motives
Displacement
Redirecting mental energy from a threatening target to an unrelated and less threatening target
Free association method
A method of both personality assessment and therapy devised by Freud in which psychologists encourage people to let their thoughts flow freely and say whatever comes to mind.
Projective test
Personality assessment tool in which items are ambiguous and psychologists are interested in the way test takers interpret the ambiguity, “projecting” elements of their own personality onto the test.
Humanistic theory
An approach to personality that focuses on people’s thoughts and feelings about themselves and the ways that interpersonal relationships shape these feelings.
Self
In humanistic theories, such as that of Rogers, an organized set of self-perceptions of our personal qualities; people’s conceptions of who they are.
Actual self
People’s perceptions of psychological qualities they possess currently, in the present.
Ideal self
People’s perceptions of psychological qualities that they optimally would possess in the future.
Condition of worth
In Rogers’s theory of personality, a behavioral requirement imposed by others, such as parents, as a condition for being fully valued, loved, and respected
Unconditional positive regard
A display of respect and acceptance toward others that is consistent and not dependent on their meeting behavioral requirements.
Self-esteem
A person’s overall sense of self-worth
Life Energy
Motivate the preservation of life and reproduction.
Death Energy
Oppose the life energies. Freud believed that humans possess an instinctive awareness of their mortality and a mental energy that motivates them to attain a final resting place
Extraversion
A tendency to approach the social and material world in an energetic manner Characteristics: Sociable, active, assertive
Agreeableness
An orientation toward positive, prosocial feelings and behaviors when interacting with others Characteristics:Altruistic, trusting, modest
Conscientiousness
A tendency to control inappropriate emotions and impulses and to follow social rules Characteristics: Reliable, hardworking, organized
Neuroticism
A tendency to experience negative emotions Characteristics: Anxious, nervous, sad
Openness to experience
An orientation toward a complex mental and behavioral life, and a diversity of experiences Characteristics: Creative, artistic, liberal
Lexical approach
A perspective on the task of identifying personality traits which presumes that all significant individual differences among people will be represented by naturally occurring words in everyday language.
Factor analysis
A statistical technique that identifies patterns in large sets of correlations.
Crowd
Large gatherings of people who do not necessarily know one another
Group
Collections of people who know and communicate with each other, have distinctive roles (e.g., a group leader), and may work together toward a common goal.
Prejudice
A negative attitude toward individuals based on their group membership, involving disparaging thoughts and feelings about individuals in a group.
Stereotype threat
A negative emotional reaction that occurs when people recognize the possibility of their confirming a negative stereotype about their group.
Hypothesis
A prediction about the result of a study
Diffusion of responsibility
Lowered feelings of personal obligation to respond to someone in need, because others might respond instead.
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