4.3 Aquatic food production systems (ESS)

How do fishery scientists monitor fish populations

Capture, mark, release, recapture fish using tagging systems to monitor fish populations. They can also monitor trace DNA that fish leave behind in water columns, and work with anglers to monitor catch and learn about trends in seasonal patterns or invasive species presence. This information is used to assess the efficacy of fishing regulations, the success of habitat improvements, and the overall health of fisheries nationwide.

Phytoplankton blooms in the Southern Oceans

This image shows phytoplankton blooms in the Southern Oceans taken by NASA. These are essential for these marine food chains but phytoplankton are responsible for about 50% of all the oxygen produced in our atmosphere.

Phytoplankton

a type of microscopic plankton capable of photosynthesis that are found in oceans, seas and freshwater. Macrophytes are aquatic plants that are large enough to be visible. They can be emergent from water, submerged or floating.

Examples of aquatic flora and fauna consumed by humans

• Spirulina - a blue-green algae

• Nori - an edible seaweed used in Japanese cuisine

• Watercress - Peppery cress (Nasturtium officianalis) grown in freshwater streams

• Chinese water chestnuts - Eleocharis dulcis used in Chinese cuisine

• shellfish, e.g. mussels, clams, oysters

• molluscs, e.g. octopus, squid (calamari)

• Crustaceans, e.g. crabs, lobsters, prawns

• Echinoderms, e.g. sea urchins

• Fish, e.g. sharks, tuna, anchovies, catfish (freshwater), Tilapia (freshwater), rainbow trout and salmon (both in freshwater and seawater for parts of their lives)

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) - State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022

demand for products harvested from marine and freshwater environments has continued to increase although slowing more recently. There has been a growth in demand for healthier dietary options which include aquatic foods and a demand for more sustainable products which has driven a rise in certification schemes.

Chlorophyll concentrations in oceans - picture

The redder the color, the higher the concentration. Where the water is shallow, light penetrates, the water is warmer, photosynthetic rates are higher and thus more productive. Nutrient loading from anthropogenic runoff leads to higher productivity but this can lead to eutrophication and potential system collapses as in the Baltic Sea where policy makers are struggling to manage the system. Upwellings lead to natural nutrient enrichment of waters and thus increased productivity such as off the coast of Peru of Namibia.

Bottom Trawling

A destructive fishing method where heavy nets are dragged along the seafloor to catch species like cod and shrimp.

Harvesting of the sea + exploitation.

Causes bycatch and damages vital marine habitats like coral reefs, crustaceans and seagrass beds. It significantly lowers populations of fish – especially juvenile fish which are now illegal to capture.

Example: In the North Sea, it has reduced fish populations and destroyed large areas of seabed.

Unsustainable: leads to habitat destruction.

Ghost fishing

Lost or discarded fishing gear, like nets or traps, continues to capture marine life, often for years.

Traps fish, marine mammals, turtles, and seabirds, often killing them and contributing to marine pollution.

Example: in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch entangles animals and damage coral reefs.

Unsustainable: Constantly reduces marine populations and damages ecosystems, contributing and damages ecosystems, contributing to long-term ocean pollution.

Maldives case study

Indian Ocean

Oliver ridley foundation

They can spread diseases and invasive species to coral reef environments. This may kill species with economic value. Expensive cleanup costs. 61 Oliver ridley turtles, 4 hawksbill turtles, and 1 green turtle.

Poisons & Explosives

In some areas, such as around the Philippines and Hong Kong poisons and explosives have been used to catch fish despite the technique being outlawed. A search for more recent evidence of these practices would seem to indicate that the practices are declining due to legislation, enforcement and the establishment of marine protected areas.

Fishers use chemicals like cyanide to stun fish, making capture easier, especially for the aquarium trade and high-value species.

 Harms non-target species and damages coral reefs, leading to coral bleaching and death.

Example: Common in the Coral triangle, a biodiversity hotspot vulnerable to fishing.

Unsustainable: Destroys ecosystems, especially coral reefs, causing long-term damage that can take decades to recover.

Blast fishing uses explosives to kill or stun fish, making them easier to collect.

Kills nearby marine life and destroys habitats, especially coral reefs, causing severe ecosystem damage.

Example: Common in Southeast Asia and the Indian ocean, where it has decimated coral reefs and biodiversity.

 Unsustainable: Causes immediate destruction of ecosystems, leading to fish population collapse and long-term habitat loss.

Tragedy of the commons - Newfoundland, Canada - cod fisheries

he concept that, if many people have access to a finite, valuable, and shared resource, they will tend to overuse it and may end up destroying its value altogether where individuals often act in their own interest, at the expense of other individuals.

In summary, Newfoundland, had the largest cod stocks in the world. However, in the 1950s, with the adoption of modern technology, the level of fishing effort increased considerably.

Catches peaked in 1968, with an estimated 800,000 tonnes of cod. Despite warnings from scientists that the level of fishing should be reduced, the government decided not to cut quotas in fear of losing jobs and overfishing continued.

By 1992 the number of mature fish able to reproduce had fallen considerably and the government decided to take radical action. They closed the entire fishery resulting in the loss of over 42,000 jobs. 

Fish stocks were expected to recover within five to ten years but by 2003 there was still little sign of improvements. Only in 2011 were there indications that fish stocks were beginning to recover although numbers were still low. 

Cabo pulmo

Before it was a fishing community, but later they switched to ecotourism. They allied with the University of Baja California Sur, UABCS. Together, via research and the goal of the people to conserve, they were able to channel their efforts in the best way. Now Cabo Pulmo has a resiliency of 400%. In order to monitor fish populations and compare to the areas that still practice fishing, scientists have used hydro-acoustic equipments and painted the sea floor with sound, which gives them a picture of what is in the water column. Hydro-acoustic equipment is very valuable as scientists are able to cover a lot of area in a short amount of time, however they have high start up initial costs and also they cannot ID species - they know there is a fish but they do not know the type of the fish. they want to use a combination of the hydro-acoustic equipment and the traditional monitoring to help them give a higher resolution with the results.

Acoustic Telemetry

Can be used for conservation purposes, tracking migration patterns, and supporting a more detailed analysis of behavior. Understanding when, why, and where animals move helps to adequately protect and manage them in a sustainable way. On land we can use GPS to track animals but that doesn’t work in water. In water scientists use Acoustic Telemetry. Telemetry - to measure from a distance. Acoustic - using sounds. Once the study animals are caught, they undergo a small surgery so the scientist can implant acoustic transmitters. For larger fish, or for animals with a hard shell, the acoustic transmitters are attached externally. The transmitters emit a sound through a sequence of pulses. This pulse is unique for each tag so scientists know which animal they are tracking. The ID can be detected if the animals swim close to the receivers, as the receivers detect the sound emitted by the tag. The receiver, which is placed in multiple areas cross the globe, information provides data on when and where animals move, and why they move, like for spawning or feeding or where they are seeking refuge. This can help researchers in decision-making like where to create marine protected areas, or MPAs, or dam removals. This helps the sustainable harvesting of fish, while ensuring they remain stable in the ecosystems.

Coast guards and fishermen

Check catch reporting systems, logbooks, digital reporting systems to monitor catches and populations - ensuring that populations are exploited sustainably and that quotas are being adhered to.

natural capital & natural income

natural resources and the goods and services provided by natural capital. In order to be sustainable, only the natural income that can be generated in a reasonable time fr

MSY

The highest possible annual catch that can be sustained over time and should be used to set limits (caps) and fishing quotas (the allocated amount of fish that can be caught). The largest long-term catch that can be sustained without depleting fish stocks. The optimal balance of fish harvest and population replenishment. Fishing above the MSY will lead to overfishing and overexploitation of fish stocks, where fish will possibly not be able to replenish themselves for the future needs of the future generation.

Initial Yield Increase

Low fishing pressure results in higher catch rates.

Effects of implementing MSY

The implementation of MSY to fishing has significantly impact local and global fishing economies and communities that heavily rely on fishing as a source of food – more fishers lose their jobs, as they are not able to fish as much anymore, consumers might not be able to eat their favorite seafood, and politicians might face backlash from constitutes.

Atlantic Cod - MSY

In the case of Atlantic cod, before fish quotas were implemented the fish were overexploited above the MSY which led to a significant decrease in its population size, due to the advanced fishing technologies.

Fish populations are dynamic

They change all the time. That is why population sizes should be always monitored to ensure that no overexploitation on accident takes place. This can come with seasonality, growth of algae, pollution, etc. This will also impact other fish groups in the entire ecosystem.

Risks of MSY

Numbers for the MSY are only estimates and sometimes based on imperfect data. Fishing at the MSY provides the population with no margin for error. If there are other pressures on the populations, such as climate change or disease, or the population size estimates are inaccurate or the growth rate overestimated then the fish populations will inevitably decline and have reduced reproductive potential (resilience). This can lead to positive feedback and to rapid declines in fish stocks.

Ocean - carbon and heat absorbed

Water bodies (oceans) have absorbed 30-40% of all the carbon and 93% of the heat added to the atmosphere due to human activities. This is having consequences on the freshwater and marine ecosystems and could result in tipping points where the populations in these ecosystems collapse.

Impact of warming oceans

reduce the amount of oxygen dissolved in the surface waters and more carbon dioxide dissolving in the oceans results in acidification. The combination of warming waters, acidification and nutrient enrichment is a big threat to the balance of ecosystems. Coral reefs are bleaching due to warmer waters and acidification is making it harder for the corals to build their structure. These ecosystems are the nursery grounds of many ocean-going species and many societies around the world depend upon them for their food.

Tipping points associated with oceans

There are three major possibilities. Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), the North Atlantic Sub-polar Gyre (SPG), and the Antarctic Overturning Circulation, which may collapse under warmer and ‘fresher’ (i.e. less salty) conditions. This map shows candidates for high probability, high impact tipping points due to warming, acidification and deoxygenation.

Great Barrier Reef - Australia

It has experienced severe coral bleaching events in the recent decades. Rising sea temperatures, particularly during marine heatwaves, cause corals to expel the symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) they rely on for energy, turning them white and often leading to death. Between 2016 and 2020, over 50% of shallow-water corals in parts of the reef were lost due to repeated bleaching events. This damages the entire ecosystem, as the reef supports over 1,500 fish species and numerous marine organisms that depend on it for food and shelter. Ocean acidification, caused by increased CO₂ absorption, also weakens coral skeletons, reducing their ability to recover. These stresses threaten biodiversity, local fisheries, and the tourism economy linked to the reef.

International Policy Legislation

Many international agreements that the EU is party to, including for example, agreements to manage stocks in northern waters such as with Norway and Iceland, bilateral agreements to take surplus stock with countries like Guinnea-Bissau and Greenland, and multlateral agreements by being part of international bodies such as International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas.

2016 FAO Port State Measures Agreement (PSMA)

The first binding international treaty specifically targeting the IUU fishing. It mandates that foreign fishing vessels seeking to enter a port must request permission in advance and provide detailed information about their fishing activities. Port states are then authorized to deny entry or port services to vessels suspected of IUU fishing. This approach effectively prevents illegally caught fish from entering global markets, thereby reducing the incentive for such activities. As of recent reports, over 100 parties have committed to the PSMA, enhancing global efforts to combat IUU fishing.

FAO Voluntary Guidelines for Catch Documentation Schemes (VGCDS) - 2017

provides a framework for states and regional organizations to develop and implement catch documentation schemes.These schemes track fish from the point of capture through the supply chain to ensure they are sourced legally and sustainably. The guidelines emphasize principles such as transparency, risk-based approaches, and the use of electronic systems where feasible. By facilitating traceability, the VGCDS aids in preventing IUU fish products from entering the market and supports responsible fisheries management.

Committee on Fisheries

Is a governing body within the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, established in 1965. It serves as a global forum where member countries discuss international fisheries and aquaculture issues, including sustainability, illegal fishing, and food security. COFI provides policy guidance and helps develop voluntary guidelines, such as the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. It also reviews and promotes the implementation of international agreements like the Port State Measures Agreement (PSMA). Through regular meetings, COFI plays a crucial role in shaping global fisheries governance and encouraging cooperation among nations.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

A legally binding agreement adopted in 1973 to ensure that international trade in wildlife does no threaten species’ survival. It regulates trade in over 38,000 species through a system of permits and certificates, categorizing species in three appendices based on their level of threat. CITES has been instrumental in controlling the trade of endangered marine species like certain sharks, sea turtles, and corals. While it does not ban trade outright, it aims to make it sustainable, traceable, and science-based. However, challenges remain in enforcement and in balancing conservation with the livelihoods of communities that depend on wildlife trade.

US - Magnuson Stevens Act aims to

Prevent overfishing, Rebuild overfishing stocks, Increase long-term economic and social benefits, Ensure a safe and sustainable supply of seafood, Protect habitats that fish need to spawn, breed, feed, and grow to maturity.

Local level regulation

Many regions, rivers or lakes have permits to allow fishing for a certain period of time or to allow a certain catch to be taken. Other methods used include quotas (a given amount in a given time) or by controlling a particular fishing season (when fishing is permitted).

Fishing Permits

Governments issue permits to control who can fish, where, and what species, helping to reduce pressure on vulnerable populations.

Fishing seasons

Seasonal restrictions protect species during vulnerable periods, like spawning, ensuring population recovery.

Mesh Size

Controlling net mesh size reduces bycatch and allows juvenile fish to escape, helping them reach maturity.

No-take zone

A special type of MPA where fishing is strictly prohibited, providing safe havens for species to recover, such as the Great Barrier Reef.

Fishing quota

Catch limits are set based on fish stock assessments to allow populations to replenish, such as Canada’s Atlantic cod quota system.

Consumer behavior

changes in consumer behaviour are occurring over time, often prompted by powerful documentaries such as End of the Line and Seaspiracy. Food labelling by organisations like the the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) labels marine species as sustainable or not and rates this. The use the following principles:

• only fishing healthy stocks

• being well-managed so stocks can be fished for the long-term

• minimizing their impact on other species and the wider ecosystem

Stakeholders

• intergovernmental organisations and bodies

• governments

• the fishing industry

• consumers

• NGOs and conservation groups

• fishery scientists

• wholesale fishery markets and local supermarkets

• consumers

Measures to help restore stocks

• temporary fishing bans

• limits to fishing licences

• prevention of bycatch

• information to help consumers choose species that are not being harvested unsustainably

North Sea Cod

In the early 2000s European Cod stock were at an all time low but by 2017 numbers were at a 35 year high and the MSC had awarded the populations a blue tick for sustainable fishing however, two years later, this was revoked as populations had plummeted. Stakeholders: Governments: UK, EU and Norway, Fishery bodies: ICES, NGOs: WWF, MSC, Marine Conservation Society, Open Seas, Fisher people, Consumers. Agreement: Cod Recovery Plan. Measures: more days at sea to fishermen who fished for cod selectively, the closure of fishing areas which contained high concentrations of juvenile cod, rewards for decommissioning older and larger fishing vessels, a clampdown on the illegal capture, landing and selling of cod. Parallel Measure: Discard ban (caught fish not allowed to be discarded - thrown back into sea).

Stakeholder Reaction - North Sea Cod

UK fisheries minister argued against reductions in quota and further limits to days at sea for British fishermen, claiming that the measures were unnecessary and that the Cod Recovery Plan was “a bad plan” and which would have a “negative effect”. By 2017 news stories signalled to consumers that they could eat cod with a “clear conscience”. At this time, WWF remained cautious and pointed out that stocks remained much lower than in the 1960s. In 2019 a report from Ices (International Council for the Exploration of the Seas) found that cod numbers were at critical levels again possibly partially due to a discard ban where fisher people may be continuing to discard and increasing their catches. The Marine Conservation Society suggested that the Cod Recovery Plan measures were stopped too quickly. Marine conservation charity Open Seas blamed overfishing, seabed trawling and the bycatch of juvenile fish, and stated that “our fishing industry will keep lurching from crisis to crisis” until politicians had the courage to implement long-term fixes. Representatives of the commercial fishing industry said there is “no escaping the fact that this unexpected  downturn in the cod stock will be damaging for our fleet”. Charles Clover, the executive director of the Blue Marine Foundation, said that the EU/UK agreement meant that the “country’s favourite fish are being sacrificed for profits ”.

HL - how can an economic system better value and protect the North Sea Cod fishery commons?

Integrating sustainable management principles and market-based tools that reflect the true ecological and social value of the resource. This includes implementing rights-based fisheries (like catch shares or individual transferable quotas) to prevent overfishing and give fishers a long-term stake in the resource. Ecosystem-based management can ensure that cod stocks are protected alongside the wider marine environment, accounting for biodiversity and food web dynamics. Introducing green taxation or subsidy reforms could discourage harmful practices and incentivize low-impact fishing methods. Finally, improving data collection, transparency, and consumer labeling (e.g., MSC certification) can align market demand with sustainable practices, ensuring the North Sea cod is treated not just as a commodity, but as a shared ecological asset.

Equity and Justice in Fishing Zones - UNCLOS

In December 2023, the UN High Seas Treaty (see UN High Seas Treaty)  was signed, building on the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (see also International Environmental Law: Legal Rights and Sustainable Use). Establishes guidelines for sustainable management of marine resources, including exclusive economic zones (EEZs). Adopted in 1982. Regime of law and order in the world’s oceans and seas establishing rules governing all uses of oceans and their resources. Introduces new legal concepts. Framework for further development of specific areas of the law of the sea. Coastal states exclusive an economic zone stretching 370 km out to sea, within which the state’s government can regulate fishing. Almost 60% of the ocean is the high seas outside these coastal zones, and is now regulated by the UN High Seas Treaty. Some countries are choosing to sell access to these exclusive fishing zones rather than managing it for local people. The EU has bilateral agreements with Mauritania and Guinea-Bissau in western Africa. The EJ Atlas reports environmental justice cases in Mauritania.

Marine Protected Areas

With the signing of the COP15 update COP15: The Convention on Biodiversity that commits countries to protecting 30% of all land and oceans, there is a growth in MPAs. Benefits include preserving biodiversity and promoting fish stock recovery. Can provide important breeding grounds or nursery grounds for young fish and they could help to protect important habitats like seagrass meadows that in turn help to buffer our coasts from the impact of storms and remove pollution from water. Long term benefits for fishing: fish populations with an MPA can multiply and then spread out into areas outside the MPA. Some of the MPAs set up around the world protect species and breeding grounds of whales and dolphins. 

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

the international legal instrument for "the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources" that has been ratified by 196 nations.

EEZs - Exclusive Economic Zones

For coastal states to manage resources within specific boundaries. Coastal states have exclusive rights to marine resources within 370km from shore. Nations control fishing, oil, and gas exploration in their EEZs.

Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction - BBNJ

On 20^th of September 2023, the UN opened its new agreement on the conservation and sustainable use of marine Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction – also known as the BBNJ treaty or high seas treaty. The UN adopted the agreement in June 2023 by consensus after nearly 2 decades of discussions. This historic agreement offers the global community an opportunity to protect some of the abundant marine life and ecosystems in the two-thirds of the ocean that lie beyond any country’s jurisdiction. Covers 4 key elements: Marine genetic resources (MGRs), Area-based management tools (ABMTs), which include marine protected areas (MPAs),  Environmental impact assessments (EIAs), Capacity-building and the transfer of marine technology (CBTMT). It’s the decision making body of COP (Conference of the Parties), scientific and technical body, Secretariat and other committees and mechanisms to carry out specific functions.

High Seas

Beyond EEZs, accounting for 60% of the ocean, with limited regulation. Developed to manage and conserve resources in international waters. Goal: To prevent overexploitation and ensure equitable access to marine resources.

Aquaculture

the farming of aquatic organisms, including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants. The industry is expanding to increase food supplies and support economic development, but there are associated environmental impacts.

Bag and Rack

Shellfish can be sustainably cultivated using "bag and rack" systems. These are exposed at low tide when they are able to be managed. They are "seeded" with young (juveniles) from hatcheries and don't require extra feed as they simply filter-feed. There is a risk of species escaping and becoming invasive if non-native.

Shellfish / Suspended Culture

This form of aquaculture requires very little input from farmers as the shellfish, for example mussels, self-seed, and grow with no inputs other than the ropes. These mussels can be grown in northern waters and don't require disturbing a natural ecosystem. One advantage of this form of farming animal protein is that the shellfish make their own shells thus locking away carbon and becoming a carbon sink.

Shrimp Farming

Tropical shrimp farming can be very controversial. The ponds required for the shrimp / prawn often involve destroying mangrove forests which serve important ecosystem services such as fish nurseries, protection from flooding and centers of biodiversity.

Open Net Pens or Cages

Fish such as Salmon are kept in nets or cages in open water off coastal areas. As the cages are open to the environment, anything placed in the cages can leach out into the environment, such as antibiotics, pesticides. The fish often escape and cause genetic pollution of local native populations. There can be high levels of fish parasites on the farmed fish and these can spread to local fish.

Recirculating Systems for Fish Farming

Most fish can be kept in these systems where the water re-circulates and is filtered to remove waste and pollution. The problems of disease, escaped fish and use of pesticides is removed but the fish may still be being fed large amounts of wild capture fish.

Seaweed Farming

Requires no freshwater, fertilizers, or arable land, while offering benefits like carbon capture, nutrient removal, and habitat creation. In the Netherlands, seaweed farming has gained attention as part of the country’s shift toward a circular and climate-resilient blue economy. Projects like North Sea Farmers have established offshore farms that grow seaweed alongside wind farms, demonstrating multi-use marine space. This innovative model helps reduce pressure on land-based agriculture and contributes to climate mitigation and sustainable food systems.

Unsustainable Fish Farming - Thailand case study

Thailand’s rapid expansion of shrimp farming in the 1980s and the 1990s is an example of unsustainable fish farming.Driven by global demand, coastal mangroves were cleared to make way for intensive shrimp ponds, leading to habitat destruction, loss of biodiversity, and increased coastal erosion. The farms often used large amounts of antibiotics and chemicals, polluting local waterways and causing frequent disease outbreaks, which made production unstable and costly. As soil and water quality declined, many ponds were abandoned, leaving behind degraded land and economic hardship for communities. This case highlights the environmental and social risks of poorly regulated aquaculture and the need for sustainable practices and coastal ecosystem protection.

Veta la Palma, Seville - sustainable fishing

Supports both food production and ecosystem services. Unlike intensive aquaculture, it uses extensive and semi-extensive methods, where fish like sea bass grow naturally without artificial feed or antibiotics, feeding on what the wetland ecosystem provides. The system is designed to mimic natural wetlands, which has led to increased biodiversity, including over 250 bird species, some of which are endangered. This case study shows how aquaculture can work with nature, supporting conservation while also producing high-value seafood - making it a model for environmentally responsible food systems.

Harvesting of seals, whales, and dolphins

raises ethical issues relating to the rights of animals and of indigenous groups of humans.

Small Scale Whale Hunt Film in Lamalera, Indonesia

Traditional whale hunting has been a vital part of the community’s culture and subsistence for centuries. This practice, conducted using small wooden boats and hand-thrown harpoons, is depicted in the documentary ‘The Last Whale Hunters’, which captures the villagers’ deep spiritual connection to the sea and their reliance on whales for food and social cohesion. Despite international concerns over whaling, Lamalera’s hunts are recognized under indigenous exemptions due to their limited scale and cultural significance. The film highlights the community’s struggle to maintain their way of life amid modern challenges and external pressures.

Dolphins and the Solomon Islands

In the Solomon Islands, particularly in the Malaita Province, traditional dolphin hunting has been practiced for centuries, primarily for the dolphin’s teeth, which hold significant cultural value as currency and in bride price ceremonies. Villages like Fanalei have been central to this practice, with reports indicating that over 15,000 dolphins were killed between 1976 and 2013. Despite a 2010 agreement with conservation groups to halt the hunts in exchange for financial incentives, the practice resumed in 2013 due to unmet promises, leading to renewed international concern. The resurgence of these hunts has sparked debates balancing cultural traditions with conservation efforts, highlighting the complexities of preserving indigenous practices while ensuring the sustainability of dolphin populations.

Faroe Whale and Dolphin Hunting

In the Faroe Islands, the traditional practice of grindadráp involves herding pilot whales and dolphins into shallow bays where they are killed for meat and blubber—a custom dating back to at least the 9th century. While the Faroese government regulates the hunts and asserts they are sustainable and culturally significant, international criticism has intensified, especially after the 2021 event where over 1,400 Atlantic white-sided dolphins were killed in a single day, sparking global outrage and leading to a provisional annual quota of 500 dolphins. Animal welfare organizations argue that the hunts are inhumane and unnecessary in modern times, given the availability of alternative food sources and concerns over mercury contamination in whale meat. The ongoing debate highlights the tension between preserving cultural traditions and addressing contemporary ethical and environmental concerns.

Narwhal hunting by Inuit

Narwhal hunting is a traditional and culturally significant practice for Inuit communities in the Arctic, providing vital resources like meat, tusks, and blubber for food, tools, and trade. The hunt is carried out using traditional knowledge and methods, often passed down through generations, and is considered sustainable due to low harvest levels and deep respect for the animal. However, climate change and increased shipping traffic in the Arctic threaten narwhal populations and Inuit hunting practices, raising concerns about long-term access to this culturally important species. The hunt is conducted under strict quota systems managed by Canadian authorities to ensure sustainability and protect narwhal populations. While conservation groups raise concerns about climate change and hunting pressure, Inuit leaders emphasize the hunt’s role in food security, cultural identity, and indigenous rights.

International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT - 1969)

Regulates fish stocks across international waters. A key success has been the recovery of some tuna populations due to Total Allowable Catches (TACs) and quotas demonstrating effective sustainable yield management. However, illegal, unreported, and unregulated (UU) fishing remains a major challenge, with loopholes in enforcement allowing overexploitation of species like the critically endangered Atlantic bluefin tuna. Additionally, bycatch from large scale industrial fishing continues to disrupt marine species diversity and trophic levels. The UN’s 1995 Fishing Stocks Agreement sought to strengthen global governance, but compliance remains uneven, particularly in the high seas. While progress has been made, achieving truly sustainable aquatic food production systems requires stricter enforcement, improved monitoring, and greater international cooperation.