American Yawp ch. 22 "The New Era"

Warren G. Harding

Return to Normalcy:

Harding's call for a return to "normalcy" was essentially a call to revert to a more traditional, less interventionist America, distancing the country from the international commitments and progressive reforms of the Wilsonian era.

2. Pro-Business Policies:

His administration favored pro-business policies, which included reducing taxes for the wealthy, cutting government spending, and promoting deregulation. Harding was committed to fostering a business-friendly environment, believing that this would spur economic growth.

3. Scandals and Corruption:

Harding's presidency is often associated with corruption scandals, notably the Teapot Dome scandal. Key members of his administration, including Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall, were involved in the illegal leasing of federal oil reserves to private companies. Harding's administration was tainted by corruption, and despite his personal integrity, the scandals damaged his legacy.

4. The Business of Government:

Harding appointed business leaders to key positions in his cabinet, many of whom implemented policies that favored corporate interests. While this led to economic growth and prosperity for some, it also reinforced economic inequalities and contributed to the growing concentration of wealth.

5. Harding's Legacy:

Harding's presidency, despite the scandals, was seen as a time of relative peace and prosperity in the short term. However, his death in 1923 left the country grappling with his lackluster leadership in the face of the corruption and economic challenges.

Despite being widely regarded as a weak president, Harding's administration played a pivotal role in shaping the 1920s. The policies he championed laid the foundation for the economic boom of the decade, though they also contributed to deepening inequalities.

Calvin Coolidge

Coolidge, known as "Silent Cal," became president after Harding's death in 1923. He was a quiet, reserved leader, but his straightforwardness and integrity were a contrast to Harding's scandals.

"The Business of America is Business":

Coolidge's belief in minimal government involvement in business was summed up by his famous quote. He believed that a hands-off government would allow businesses to thrive, driving national prosperity.

Pro-Business Policies:

Coolidge continued Harding's tax cuts for the wealthy, reduced government spending, and deregulation. His administration promoted big business interests and favored corporate profits over workers' rights.

Economic Boom & Inequality:

The 1920s saw rising stock markets, consumer goods expansion, and mass production. However, wealth was concentrated among the rich, and workers saw few benefits, deepening economic inequality.

Labor and Strikes:

Coolidge's response to labor was often hostile. His use of federal power to crush strikes, such as the 1919 Boston Police Strike (before his presidency), reinforced his pro-business approach but angered labor unions.

Foreign Policy:

Coolidge adhered to an isolationist foreign policy, focusing on domestic issues. He supported the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928), which condemned war but had no enforcement mechanisms.

Legacy:

Coolidge presided over a period of prosperity but at the cost of rising inequality. His "hands-off" policies are seen as contributing to the Great Depression that followed, as they created economic instability beneath the surface of apparent success.

The Equal Rights Amendment

Great Migration: African Americans moved north in large numbers, escaping Jim Crow and seeking better jobs. This shift empowered Black communities in cities like Harlem.

Harlem Renaissance: A cultural movement highlighting African American arts, literature, and intellectualism, pushing for racial pride and civil rights.

NAACP: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People grew, focusing on legal challenges to segregation, disfranchisement, and racial violence. Figures like W.E.B. Du Bois fought for equality and civil rights.

Women's Rights:

19th Amendment (1920): Women gained the right to vote after decades of struggle, marking a major victory for suffragists.

Post-Suffrage Issues: Women still faced political, economic, and social inequality. Organizations like the League of Women Voters worked to promote women's engagement in politics. Margaret Sanger pushed for birth control access to empower women.

Labor Rights:

Union Growth: The 1920s saw a rise in union membership and strikes, pushing for better working conditions and wages. Despite government hostility, some industries saw gains.

Red Scare & Repression: The fear of communism and anarchism led to widespread crackdowns on labor activists, with strikes often met by violence from both the government and business owners.

Immigrant Rights:

Anti-Immigrant Sentiment: Nativism surged, leading to restrictive immigration laws, like the Immigration Act of 1924, which imposed quotas to limit immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.

Radical Movements:

Socialism & Communism: Post-WWI, socialist and communist movements grew, influenced by the Russian Revolution. However, the Red Scare led to the suppression of these movements, limiting their impact.

The Defeat of Al Smith

Smith's candidacy in 1928 was historic as he was the first Catholic to run for president from a major party. His nomination marked a shift in the Democratic Party's base, which had increasingly aligned with urban, Catholic, and immigrant groups.

Cultural and Religious Divides:

Smith's Catholicism became a focal point of the campaign. Many Protestant Americans, particularly in the rural South and Midwest, viewed Catholicism with suspicion and feared that a Catholic president would be too loyal to the Pope and the Vatican, undermining American values.

This religious divide intensified the election, with Smith often being portrayed as an outsider to traditional American values.

The Urban-Rural Divide:

The 1928 election also highlighted the deepening divide between urban and rural America. Smith's support was strongest in cities, especially those with large immigrant populations, while Hoover was backed by rural America, where Protestant and traditional values dominated.

The rural electorate, already wary of urbanization and modernism, viewed Smith's progressive, urban policies as a threat to the status quo.

Herbert Hoover's Victory:

Hoover, the Republican candidate, capitalized on the strong economic prosperity of the 1920s and positioned himself as the candidate of business, Protestant values, and traditionalism. His victory was decisive, winning 58% of the popular vote and 444 electoral votes to Smith's 87.

Hoover's appeal was especially strong among middle-class voters and those who felt threatened by the cultural changes symbolized by Smith.

Impact of the Defeat:

Smith's defeat in 1928 highlighted the limits of urban, immigrant, and Catholic political power at the time. Despite his strong base of support in cities, the national political landscape remained dominated by Protestant, rural, and conservative values.

Consumerism

The rise of assembly line manufacturing made consumer goods like cars, radios, and household appliances affordable. Ford's Model T revolutionized transportation by making cars accessible to the middle class, reshaping American life.

Advertising:

Advertising became a major force, using psychology and emotional appeal to create demand. Billboards, radio, and magazines targeted consumers, associating products with personal fulfillment and modernity.

Credit and Installment Buying:

Installment plans allowed consumers to buy goods like cars and appliances on credit, making products more accessible but also leading to debt accumulation and financial instability.

Cultural Shift:

The 1920s embraced materialism and individualism. Consumer goods became symbols of success and modernity, with fashion, beauty products, and entertainment (e.g., movies, jazz) becoming central to American culture.

Women and Consumerism:

Women were both consumers and primary targets for advertisements, which promoted beauty products and fashion. Appliances aimed to ease domestic labor, though women's roles at home remained largely unchanged.

Criticism:

Critics argued consumerism promoted superficiality, materialism, and a loss of traditional values. It was seen as a distraction from deeper social and moral issues.

Economic Impact:

Consumer spending fueled economic prosperity in the 1920s, but reliance on credit and speculation led to instability, contributing to the 1929 stock market crash and the Great Depression.

Popular Culture

Jazz music, rooted in African American culture, became mainstream, with stars like Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington. It symbolized the era's energy and cultural shift.

The Flapper and Gender Roles:

The "flapper" represented modern, independent women who embraced shorter dresses, bobbed hair, and a lifestyle of freedom. This mirrored broader shifts in women's rights after the 19th Amendment.

Hollywood and Film:

Hollywood exploded, with silent films and movie stars like Charlie Chaplin and Clara Bow shaping national culture. The transition to "talkies" in the late '20s changed cinema forever.

Radio and Mass Media:

Radio became a key source of entertainment and information, uniting the country through broadcasts, music, and advertisements, contributing to cultural homogeneity.

Sports and Celebrities:

Sports figures like Babe Ruth became national icons, fueling celebrity culture and offering Americans a shared entertainment experience.

Prohibition and Speakeasies:

Despite Prohibition (1920-1933), the demand for alcohol led to the rise of illegal "speakeasies," reflecting defiance of traditional moral values.

Harlem Renaissance:

The Harlem Renaissance brought African American culture to the forefront through art, literature, and music, with figures like Langston Hughes challenging racial stereotypes.

Fashion and Consumerism:

Mass-produced fashion, cosmetics, and accessories became symbols of modernity and upward mobility in a consumer-driven society.

Cultural Tensions:

While urban areas embraced modern culture, rural America resisted, leading to cultural clashes, notably in events like the Scopes Trial (1925), where evolution vs. creationism was debated.

Mary Pickford

Mary Pickford became one of the most popular and highest-paid actresses of the silent film era. She gained fame for her innocent, girl-next-door image and starred in numerous successful films, such as Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1917) and Little Lord Fauntleroy (1921).

Cultural Icon:

Pickford's image as the quintessential American heroine helped define early Hollywood's appeal. Her popularity extended beyond just her acting, as she became a symbol of idealized femininity and youth.

Influence on Hollywood:

Beyond acting, Pickford was one of the co-founders of United Artists in 1919, a major film production company. This move gave her greater creative control over her projects and allowed her to break free from the traditional studio system, influencing the industry's structure.

Legacy:

Mary Pickford's success contributed to the rise of the celebrity culture that became a hallmark of the 1920s. Her image and business acumen helped shape Hollywood's future and paved the way for other actors and actresses to gain more influence over their careers.

Jazz

Jazz originated in New Orleans and was deeply influenced by African rhythms, blues, and ragtime. It was a product of Black musical traditions and quickly spread to cities like Chicago and New York, where it found a broader audience.

The Harlem Renaissance:

Jazz played a central role in the Harlem Renaissance, a cultural movement that celebrated African American culture. Musicians like Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong, and Bessie Smith became iconic figures in jazz, transforming the genre into a major cultural force.

Cultural Impact:

Jazz became synonymous with the "Roaring Twenties," representing the excitement and rebellion of the era. It was linked to the rise of new dance styles like the Charleston and became a soundtrack for urban nightlife and speakeasies during Prohibition.

Race and Integration:

Jazz helped bridge racial divides. While it was born out of African American communities, it gained popularity among white audiences, challenging traditional racial boundaries in music and culture.

Innovation and Improvisation:

Jazz was distinct for its emphasis on improvisation, allowing musicians to express individual creativity. This innovation resonated with the era's broader cultural embrace of freedom and experimentation.

Babe Ruth

Babe Ruth rose to fame as a player for the New York Yankees, where he transformed the game with his powerful hitting. Known for his record-breaking home runs, Ruth set new standards in baseball, including a single-season home run record of 60 in 1927.

His ability to hit home runs helped popularize the "live-ball" era, which shifted baseball away from small-ball tactics and emphasized power hitting.

Cultural Icon:

Ruth became a symbol of American masculinity and exuberance. His public persona—marked by his love of luxury, good food, and fun—embodied the spirit of the 1920s. He was often seen as a contrast to the more reserved, disciplined athletes of earlier eras.

His fame extended beyond the baseball field, with Ruth becoming a media sensation and a national celebrity.

Connection to Consumerism and Celebrity Culture:

Ruth's popularity coincided with the rise of celebrity culture in the 1920s. As an athlete, he was not only admired for his skill but also became a central figure in advertising, endorsements, and public appearances, marking the growing commercialization of sports.

Legacy:

Babe Ruth's impact on baseball and American culture was profound. He is often regarded as one of the greatest baseball players of all time, and his larger-than-life image continues to be a part of the cultural fabric of the U.S.

The Flapper

The flapper was a young woman who embraced freedom, independence, and a more liberated lifestyle. She rejected the Victorian ideals of womanhood, such as strict modesty, domesticity, and restraint.

Flappers wore shorter dresses, bobbed their hair, and often smoked and drank in public, which was previously considered inappropriate for women.

Fashion and Appearance:

The flapper's fashion was a direct contrast to the more conservative styles of previous decades. Flapper dresses were knee-length, less restrictive, and often adorned with fringe or beads. Their androgynous look with flat-chested silhouettes challenged conventional beauty standards.

Cultural Symbol of the 1920s:

The flapper became a symbol of the "Roaring Twenties" and its spirit of rebellion, youthfulness, and modernity. She represented the decade's shift toward a more consumer-driven society, embracing new forms of entertainment, like jazz music, and seeking a life of fun and pleasure.

Sexual Liberation and Changing Morality:

The flapper was also linked to the era's changing attitudes toward sexuality. Women were more open about their sexual freedom, engaging in premarital relationships and redefining gender and sexual norms.

This shift was part of broader social changes, including the 19th Amendment (1920), which granted women the right to vote.

Public Perception and Criticism:

Flappers were both admired and criticized. Some viewed them as empowered and independent, while others saw them as immoral or decadent. Critics argued that their behavior threatened traditional family structures and social values.

Women in the workplace

The 1920s saw an increase in the number of women entering the workforce, especially in clerical, retail, and service jobs. Women were hired in larger numbers as secretaries, typists, and telephone operators, jobs that were seen as extensions of traditional "female" duties of organization and communication.

White Collar Jobs:

Many women began working in office environments, a shift from the more common factory work of previous decades. The rise of the "white-collar" job, which often involved clerical and administrative work, became a key area of employment for women during the decade.

Workplace Challenges:

Despite these gains, women in the workplace still faced significant barriers. They were often paid less than men, even for doing similar work. Societal expectations also confined women to certain jobs and limited their career advancement opportunities.

There was also resistance from some employers and male workers who were uncomfortable with the idea of women in positions of power or authority, and many women were expected to leave their jobs once they married.

Social Change and Feminism:

The 1920s also saw the rise of the "New Woman," a more independent figure who sought both personal and economic freedom. Women's increased participation in the workforce was linked to broader feminist movements, such as the push for voting rights (with the 19th Amendment passed in 1920) and greater social and legal equality.

However, most of the workplace changes were still confined to the middle class and urban areas, leaving working-class women, especially Black women, with fewer opportunities and lower wages.

Sexual Attitudes

The 1920s saw greater openness about sexuality. Women, especially in cities, embraced premarital sex, casual dating, and public affection. The "flapper" symbolized this, rejecting traditional modesty and embracing more liberated behaviors.

The "New Woman":

With the 19th Amendment (1920), women gained voting rights, and their roles in the workplace grew. This increased independence carried over into their sexual lives, challenging old norms and embracing more autonomy and freedom.

Jazz and Dance:

Jazz music and dances like the Charleston became associated with sexual freedom and youthful rebellion. These dances encouraged physical closeness and challenged conservative ideas about public decency.

Birth Control Movement:

The birth control movement, led by figures like Margaret Sanger, gained traction. It advocated for contraception access, allowing women more control over their reproductive choices, though it was controversial and opposed by religious groups.

Prohibition and Sexual Culture:

Prohibition led to the growth of speakeasies, where alcohol, dancing, and sexual freedom flourished in a rebellious setting. These spaces represented a defiance of traditional social norms.

Racial and Class Differences:

Sexual liberation varied by race and class. White, middle-class women in urban areas were at the forefront of sexual freedoms, while Black women in Harlem and working-class women navigated different social dynamics around sexuality and expression.

Backlash:

While sexual freedom spread, it faced resistance, especially from religious and conservative groups. The Scopes Trial (1925) symbolized the conflict between modern, urban values and traditional, rural beliefs.

The Great Migration

Economic Opportunities: The industrial boom in the North offered better job prospects, especially in cities like Chicago, Detroit, and New York, where jobs in manufacturing, railroads, and other industries were abundant.

Escape from Jim Crow: Many African Americans sought to escape the systemic racism, violence, and segregation of the South, where they faced disenfranchisement, discrimination, and frequent violence (e.g., lynching).

World War I: The demand for labor during WWI opened up job opportunities in the North as men went off to war, further encouraging migration.

Destination Cities:

Northern Urban Centers: Major destinations included cities like Chicago, Harlem (New York), Detroit, and Philadelphia, where African Americans could find better-paying jobs and live in relatively more racially integrated communities.

Westward Movement: Some also migrated to western cities like Los Angeles and Oakland, where the entertainment industry and agricultural work provided new economic opportunities.

Impact on African American Culture:

The migration helped fuel the Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s, a cultural explosion of African American art, literature, music, and intellectualism centered in Harlem, New York.

It also contributed to the urbanization of African American communities, shifting their cultural and social influence from rural Southern traditions to urban, modern life.

Challenges in the North:

Racism in the North: Though less overt than in the South, racism persisted in the North, and African Americans still faced discrimination in housing, employment, and social integration.

Tensions with Immigrants: As African Americans moved to urban centers, they sometimes faced competition for jobs and housing with European immigrants, leading to racial tensions in certain cities.

The Harlem Renaissance

Langston Hughes: His poetry and essays explored Black life, focusing on race, identity, and culture, and became a key voice in the movement.

Zora Neale Hurston: Hurston's works like Their Eyes Were Watching God delved into African American folklore, gender, and the complexity of Black womanhood.

Duke Ellington & Louis Armstrong: Pioneers of jazz, they transformed music, which became the sound of the Harlem Renaissance, symbolizing freedom, innovation, and cultural pride.

Cultural Impact:

The Harlem Renaissance reshaped the Black cultural landscape, redefining African American identity through art, music, and literature. It pushed back against racist depictions, celebrating Black history and experiences.

Jazz, the dominant genre, broke with traditional forms, using improvisation and syncopation to express complex emotions and narratives. It became a symbol of Black culture's vibrancy and creativity.

Visual artists, writers, and musicians also drew on African heritage, creating a new cultural narrative that celebrated Blackness, often juxtaposing it against white cultural norms.

Themes:

Racial Pride: The movement rejected the notion of Black inferiority, embracing African American heritage and history. Figures like W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey advocated for Black pride, unity, and self-determination.

Modernism: The Renaissance was part of a broader modernist movement that challenged established conventions. Writers experimented with new forms and structures, and artists blended African traditions with modern American sensibilities.

Social and Political Commentary: Many Harlem Renaissance works focused on issues like racial discrimination, segregation, and the fight for equality, serving as a critique of American society's racial injustices.

"The New Negro"

popularized by Alain Locke, a philosopher and intellectual, in his 1925 anthology The New Negro. Locke argued that African Americans should reject stereotypes of passivity and inferiority and instead embrace their culture and identity with pride.

The term described a generation of African Americans who had grown up with the opportunities and self-awareness that the Great Migration and the Harlem Renaissance provided.

Cultural and Social Shifts:

The New Negro represented a break from the old image of African Americans as subservient, downtrodden, or submissive. It emphasized assertiveness, political activism, and cultural expression.

Impact of the Harlem Renaissance:

Harlem became the epicenter for the New Negro movement, as writers like Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Claude McKay, along with musicians like Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong, expressed a new sense of Black identity.

These figures created work that celebrated African American culture, history, and beauty, challenging prevailing racist stereotypes and asserting the worth of Black life and experience.

Political and Intellectual Roots:

The New Negro was also politically charged. Figures like W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey advocated for Black pride and unity. Du Bois's vision of the Talented Tenth and Garvey's focus on Black nationalism and Pan-Africanism both contributed to the growing sense of racial self-awareness.

The New Negro movement called for full civil rights, political representation, and an end to racial violence and discrimination.

Critique of Old Black Stereotypes:

It asserted that African Americans were intellectually capable, artistically gifted, and deserving of equal rights and opportunities.

Marcus Gravy

Born in Jamaica in 1887, Garvey moved to the U.S. in 1916, influenced by racial inequality he observed in both the Caribbean and America. He developed a vision of Black empowerment and independence.

Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA):

Founded in 1914, the UNIA aimed to unify people of African descent globally, promote Black pride, and create economic self-sufficiency.

The organization had mass appeal, especially among working-class African Americans, focusing on Black solidarity, cultural pride, and political activism.

Pan-Africanism and Black Nationalism:

Garvey promoted Pan-Africanism, which advocated for the unity and political independence of Black people worldwide. He believed that Black people should establish their own institutions, businesses, and even return to Africa for a liberated homeland.

His Back-to-Africa movement encouraged African Americans to emigrate to Africa, seeking independence from White-dominated society.

The Black Star Line:

In 1919, Garvey founded the Black Star Line, a shipping company designed to facilitate trade between Africa, the Caribbean, and the U.S., promoting economic independence.

The company's failure due to mismanagement and financial troubles didn't diminish Garvey's vision but led to legal scrutiny.

Opposition and Legal Trouble:

Garvey faced significant criticism from Black leaders like W.E.B. Du Bois, who rejected his separatist views in favor of integration and equality. Du Bois and others believed Garvey's approach would alienate potential allies.

The U.S. government, particularly under J. Edgar Hoover, targeted Garvey for his radical ideas. In 1923, he was convicted of mail fraud related to the Black Star Line, sentenced to prison, and deported to Jamaica in 1927.

The National Origins Act

The National Origins Act of 1924 implemented a quota system to restrict immigration.

It set quotas at 2% of each nationality's population in the U.S. from the 1890 census, favoring Northern/Western Europeans (British, Germans, Scandinavians) while limiting Southern/Eastern Europeans (Italy, Poland, Russia) and banning Asian immigration entirely.

This excluded Asians, continuing racial exclusion policies like the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.

Impact on Immigrants:

Southern/Eastern Europeans (Italy, Poland, Russia) faced severe limits, seen as "undesirable" immigrants.

Asian immigration was effectively banned, building on earlier policies.

Northern/Western Europeans (especially Anglo-Saxon groups) benefited, reflecting a racial preference for people of Anglo-Saxon descent.

Long-Term Consequences:

The Act reduced immigration dramatically, lasting until the 1960s, when the Immigration and Nationality Act replaced the quota system with a more equitable one focused on family reunification and skilled labor.

The law reinforced racial prejudices, fostering a homogeneous vision of American identity and deepening ethnic and racial divisions.

Political & Social Implications:

Supported by nativist and Republican factions, it institutionalized racism and xenophobia, exacerbating racial tensions.

The law entrenched a racial hierarchy, treating immigrants from certain regions as less desirable than others.

Christian Fundamentalism

originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a response to modernist trends in theology, science, and culture, particularly the rise of evolutionary theory and secularism.

Conservative Protestants embraced a literal interpretation of the Bible, advocating for the return to traditional Christian values.

Beliefs:

Fundamentalists emphasized the inerrancy of the Bible, the literal truth of Creationism, and the miracles of the Bible.

They believed in the necessity of a personal salvation through faith in Christ and rejected the influence of secularism and scientific theories like Darwinism.

The Scopes Trial:

The Scopes "Monkey" Trial (1925) epitomized the clash between Christian Fundamentalism and modern science.

John Scopes, a teacher in Tennessee, was charged with teaching evolution in violation of state law. The trial became a national spectacle, symbolizing the broader cultural divide.

William Jennings Bryan, a fundamentalist leader, represented the prosecution, while Clarence Darrow defended Scopes, arguing for academic freedom and scientific inquiry.

Political Influence:

Fundamentalists sought to shape American society through political activism, aiming to influence laws around public education and morality.

They were especially active in pushing for the restriction of evolutionary theory in schools and promoting a more conservative social agenda.

The Scopes Trial

In 1925, John Scopes, a high school biology teacher in Dayton, Tennessee, was charged under the Butler Act, which banned teaching evolution in public schools. Scopes taught Darwin's theory of evolution, violating the law.

The case was brought by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), aiming to challenge the law's constitutionality and support academic freedom.

The Trial:

The prosecution was led by William Jennings Bryan, a prominent fundamentalist and former presidential candidate, who argued that teaching evolution undermined biblical creationism and Christian values.

The defense was led by Clarence Darrow, a famous lawyer and agnostic, who defended Scopes by emphasizing the importance of academic freedom and scientific inquiry.

The trial was highly publicized, with media coverage turning it into a national spectacle, symbolizing the cultural rift between urban, secular and rural, religious America.

Cultural Divide:

The trial showcased the conflict between modernism (represented by science, secularism, and urbanization) and traditionalism (represented by religion, rural America, and biblical literalism).

It highlighted the tensions of the 1920s when scientific discoveries, like evolution, clashed with older religious views, fueling a broader debate about education, morality, and social change.

Outcome:

Scopes was found guilty and fined $100 (a symbolic amount). However, the trial's real significance lay in the public exposure of the cultural battle over religion and science.

The verdict was later overturned on a technicality, but the trial's broader effects on public opinion and law were more lasting than the actual court decision.

The Klu Klux Klan (KKK)

The Klan, originally founded in the post-Civil War South in 1865, was revived in the 1910s and 1920s after a period of dormancy.

The Klan's new incarnation, led by William J. Simmons, spread rapidly across the United States, especially in the Midwest, West, and Northeast, rather than just the South.

The Klan capitalized on the fears surrounding immigration, urbanization, and the social changes of the 1920s, including the women's rights movement, Black rights, and the rise of secularism.

Ideology and Goals:

The KKK promoted white supremacy, nativism, and Prohibition, while targeting African Americans, immigrants (particularly Catholics and Jews), and flappers or women seeking more personal freedom.

The Klan also condemned modernism, especially scientific advances like evolution, and championed a return to "traditional" American values rooted in Protestantism.

They were particularly hostile toward Catholicism, associating it with foreign influence, and were also against the increasing visibility of Black culture in American life, particularly during the Harlem Renaissance.

Violence and Intimidation:

The Klan used terrorist tactics such as lynchings, arson, and whippings to intimidate African Americans and others they saw as enemies.

Public rituals, such as burning crosses, were meant to instill fear and create a sense of mystique around their activities.

Political Power:

The Klan gained significant political influence, especially in the Midwest and South, where they elected officials and attempted to shape public policy.

They promoted Prohibition, believing it would uphold American moral values, and sought to influence local governments, schools, and public life, sometimes through violent means.

McNary-Haugen Bill

After World War I, farmers in the U.S. faced economic hardships due to a decline in wartime agricultural demand, overproduction, and falling crop prices.

Many farmers, especially in the Midwest and South, struggled to stay afloat financially, leading to widespread support for government intervention to stabilize agricultural prices.

Provisions:

The McNary-Haugen Bill was introduced in the 1920s by Senators Charles McNary of Oregon and Arthur Haugen of Iowa.

The bill proposed to create a government-backed system where the U.S. government would buy excess crops (like wheat, cotton, and corn) from farmers at guaranteed prices and sell them abroad at a loss if necessary.

The aim was to raise farm income, stabilize agricultural prices, and prevent price fluctuations that left farmers vulnerable to economic instability.

Political Struggles:

The bill passed in Congress multiple times but faced strong opposition from conservative Republicans and business interests, who feared that the government's intervention in agriculture would distort free-market competition and lead to inflation.

Despite strong support from farmers and some progressive groups, the bill was vetoed twice by President Calvin Coolidge, who argued it would be too costly and inefficient.

Outcome:

The McNary-Haugen Bill failed to become law during the 1920s, though it did set the stage for future agricultural policy debates.

Although the bill was ultimately unsuccessful, it highlighted the growing tension between the rural farming community and urban industrial interests, with farmers seeking government assistance to stabilize prices while others feared government intervention in the economy.

"American Plan" ("open shop")

The American Plan emerged after World War I in response to labor unrest, strikes, and the growth of organized labor in the United States.

Business leaders and corporations feared the rising power of unions, which were advocating for better wages, working conditions, and the right to organize.

The movement was fueled by the belief that unions were tied to radicalism and socialism, which many business leaders viewed as a threat to American capitalism.

"Open Shop" Concept:

The American Plan promoted the idea of an "open shop", where employees would not be required to join a union or pay union dues as a condition of employment.

It encouraged businesses to adopt non-unionized workplaces, ensuring that all workers had the freedom to choose whether or not to join a union without facing discrimination or losing their jobs.

Anti-Union Campaign:

Employers used the American Plan to foster a campaign against unionization, portraying unions as un-American and disruptive to the economy.

It was presented as a defense of individual liberty, claiming that workers should be free to negotiate directly with employers without interference from labor unions.

This movement had significant support from business organizations like the National Association of Manufacturers (NAM), which actively campaigned for the open shop and against the closed shop (a workplace where union membership was required).

Tactics and Implementation:

Employers employed a variety of tactics to enforce the American Plan, including blacklisting union members, firing workers who attempted to organize, and using strikebreakers to weaken union efforts.

Public relations campaigns were used to spread the idea that unions were dangerous and unpatriotic, framing the open shop as a symbol of American freedom and enterprise.

Charles Lindbergh

Charles Lindbergh gained international fame in 1927 when he completed the first solo nonstop transatlantic flight from New York to Paris in his aircraft, the Spirit of St. Louis.

The flight took 33.5 hours, covering more than 3,600 miles, and captured the imagination of the world. Lindbergh's achievement symbolized the possibilities of modern technology and American ingenuity.

National Hero:

Lindbergh was celebrated as an American hero. His flight not only marked a major achievement in aviation but also elevated aviation as an important symbol of progress and American exceptionalism.

He became a global symbol of courage, precision, and technological advancement, drawing huge crowds wherever he went.

Influence on Aviation:

Lindbergh's success promoted the growth of commercial aviation, inspiring other aviators and investors to support the development of air travel.

He was involved in the creation of the Transcontinental Air Transport (TAT), which aimed to establish regular passenger air routes across the United States.

Controversial Views:

In the late 1930s, Lindbergh's popularity took a controversial turn when he became involved in isolationist politics. He opposed U.S. entry into World War II and was a prominent member of the America First Committee, which advocated for staying out of European conflicts.

Lindbergh's views became increasingly controversial as he made anti-interventionist statements and aligned himself with Nazi Germany's early successes, making some anti-Semitic remarks, which damaged his reputation in the U.S.

Walt Disney

started his career in animation in the 1920s, initially working in silent films and later pioneering talking cartoons.

His first major success came with the creation of Mickey Mouse in 1928, a character that quickly became a cultural icon and helped launch the Disney brand.

Technological Innovation:

Disney revolutionized the animation industry with the creation of synchronized sound in cartoons, most notably with the success of Steamboat Willie (1928), the first cartoon to feature synchronized sound, with Mickey Mouse as the star.

His innovations in animation, including the use of technicolor and multiplane cameras, helped shape the future of the medium and established Disney as a leader in entertainment technology.

Expansion of the Disney Brand:

Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, Disney expanded beyond short cartoons to produce full-length animated films, with Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) being the first-ever feature-length animated movie, solidifying Disney's legacy in the industry.

Disney's work laid the foundation for the Golden Age of Animation, and he played a key role in making animation a mainstream form of entertainment.

Cultural Impact:

Disney's characters, particularly Mickey Mouse, became symbols of American culture, embodying themes of optimism, innocence, and family-friendly entertainment. Disney's ability to create universally appealing characters and stories contributed significantly to the rise of mass media and consumer culture in the 1920s and beyond.

He was not just an animator but a visionary who shaped the entertainment landscape, merging art with technology to create an unparalleled cultural empire.

Radio

Radio became widely popular after KDKA in Pittsburgh aired the first licensed commercial broadcast in 1920.

It quickly expanded, providing a new platform for communication and entertainment.

Entertainment Impact:

Radio brought national shows like news, music, soap operas, and comedy into homes, creating a shared cultural experience.

Jazz flourished on the radio, reaching a broader audience, influencing music tastes.

Cultural and Social Influence:

Radio united urban and rural Americans, bridging geographical gaps and forming a common cultural identity.

It promoted consumerism with direct advertising to households, further expanding mass culture.

Political Impact:

Politicians, including Harding and Hoover, used radio to directly address the public, influencing political engagement and public opinion.

Economic Growth:

The radio industry grew rapidly, leading to the formation of NBC and CBS. It also spurred job creation in technology, advertising, and entertainment.

Legacy:

By the late 1920s, radio became a central part of daily life, laying the groundwork for future media like television and digital communication.

"Lost Generation"

The term "Lost Generation" was coined by Gertrude Stein and popularized by Ernest Hemingway. It referred to a group of writers and intellectuals who felt alienated from mainstream American society after the horrors and disillusionment of World War I.

Disillusionment:

These writers saw their values, once grounded in optimism and American ideals, shattered by the war's devastation, the failure of society to prevent such a conflict, and the loss of traditional structures of meaning.

The war left them feeling disconnected from the materialism, nationalism, and conventional values that dominated 1920s America.

Key Writers:

Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and T.S. Eliot were central figures in the Lost Generation. Their works often explored themes of alienation, disillusionment, and the search for meaning in a world that seemed increasingly fragmented and shallow.

Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises (1926) and Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925) are quintessential works of the movement, depicting characters who struggle with the emptiness of modern life.

Themes:

The Lost Generation writers often critiqued the materialism and consumerism of the 1920s, mocking the social mores and the pursuit of wealth.

Their works also highlighted a sense of dislocation and search for identity in a world that seemed indifferent or hostile to traditional values and ideals.

Prohibition

Prohibition was the result of decades of temperance movements led by groups like the Anti-Saloon League and the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), which pushed for the legal restriction of alcohol to curb social problems like domestic violence, crime, and poverty.

The 18th Amendment (1919) and the Volstead Act (1919) legalized the national ban on alcohol, aiming to reduce societal issues associated with drinking.

Social and Political Impact:

Prohibition created a cultural divide, with rural, conservative Americans supporting the law, while urban, immigrant populations largely opposed it, seeing alcohol as part of their cultural traditions.

The ban led to the creation of illegal alcohol trade, including speakeasies (illegal bars) and bootlegging, fueling organized crime.

Rise of Organized Crime:

Gangsters like Al Capone capitalized on Prohibition by running illegal alcohol operations, leading to a rise in organized crime.

Criminal gangs engaged in bootlegging, bribery, and violence, profiting from the illegal demand for alcohol.

Failure and Repeal:

Despite efforts to enforce Prohibition, it was widely ignored, and alcohol consumption did not decrease as expected. Instead, it became a symbol of rebellion against government authority.

The Great Depression further undermined Prohibition as the government sought tax revenue from the alcohol industry. In 1933, the 21st Amendment was passed, repealing Prohibition and ending the nationwide ban on alcohol.

Sacco and Vanzetti

Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were Italian immigrants and self-identified anarchists accused of the 1920 robbery and murder of two men in South Braintree, Massachusetts.

Their trial was marked by anti-immigrant and anti-radical sentiment, as the two men were outspoken against the government and capitalism, which led to biased perceptions of their guilt.

Trial and Conviction:

Sacco and Vanzetti's trial (1921) was controversial due to the weakness of the evidence against them, as much of the case rested on questionable witness testimonies and circumstantial evidence.

Despite these flaws, they were convicted largely because of their political beliefs and immigrant status, which fueled suspicion in the climate of the Red Scare and the growing fear of radicalism following World War I.

Public Reaction:

The case became a symbol of injustice, with many people believing the two men were convicted because of their anarchist views and their status as immigrants, not because of any actual wrongdoing.

Protests and campaigns calling for a new trial or clemency gained international attention, with supporters including prominent figures such as Albert Einstein, H.G. Wells, and George Bernard Shaw.

Execution:

Despite widespread protests and appeals for clemency, Sacco and Vanzetti were executed by electric chair on August 23, 1927.

Their execution sparked even greater protests, with many Americans and people around the world seeing the case as a miscarriage of justice.

Washington Conference of 1921

also known as the Washington Naval Conference) was held from November 1921 to February 1922 in Washington, D.C.

The conference was called by the United States to address the growing military tensions and the need for arms control, particularly in the Pacific.

Key Participants:

Major world powers participated, including the United States, Great Britain, Japan, France, and Italy.

The goal was to establish limits on naval armament, particularly battleships, and prevent an arms race that had contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

Main Agreements:

The conference led to several major treaties aimed at reducing the size and strength of naval fleets, most notably: The Five-Power Naval Treaty (1922): This treaty set limits on the number of battleships each country could maintain, creating a ratio system to ensure balance, with the United States, Great Britain, and Japan agreeing to the largest fleets. The Four-Power Treaty (1922): This agreement between the U.S., Great Britain, Japan, and France promised to consult each other in the event of a conflict in the Pacific and respect each other's territorial holdings. The Nine-Power Treaty (1922): This treaty reaffirmed the Open Door Policy in China and called for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of China to be respected by all signatories.

Impact:

The Washington Conference marked a high point in U.S. diplomacy in the 1920s, as it successfully curtailed naval armaments and helped avoid an arms race in the Pacific.

However, the disarmament agreements were not permanent solutions, as some countries, notably Japan, eventually violated the treaties in the 1930s.

The conference also reflected the U.S.'s growing role as a global power, setting the stage for future diplomatic efforts in the interwar period.

Dawes Plan

Post-WWI, Germany's reparations under the Treaty of Versailles were financially crippling, leading to hyperinflation and instability.

The United States, though not part of the League of Nations, played a role in stabilizing Europe to protect its own financial interests.

The Dawes Plan:

Created by Charles G. Dawes, the plan restructured Germany's reparations, reducing annual payments and spreading them over a longer period.

It included a $200 million loan from American banks to stabilize Germany's economy and set up a central bank to manage the payments.

Impact:

The plan helped Germany recover from hyperinflation and stabilized its economy, allowing it to make reparations payments to France and Britain.

It also benefited the U.S. economy by strengthening ties to European financial markets and securing American loans.

It led to a period of relative economic stability in Germany during the late 1920s.

Criticism:

Critics argued it was a temporary fix, and it did not solve the long-term problems of German debt or European instability.

The plan relied on American loans, which were unsustainable when the Great Depression hit in the 1930s.

Legacy:

The Dawes Plan is a key example of the U.S. influence on global economic diplomacy during the interwar period.

Although it provided short-term stability, the underlying issues of German reparations were not fully addressed, and the plan was eventually replaced by the Young Plan in 1929.

Locarno Pact

After World War I, Europe faced political instability, especially between Germany and the Allied powers. The Treaty of Versailles had left unresolved tensions, particularly regarding Germany's borders and relations with France and Belgium.

The Locarno Pact was part of efforts to rebuild trust and ensure peace through diplomacy rather than war.

Key Agreements:

Signed in Locarno, Switzerland, in October 1925, the pact included several agreements: Germany, France, and Belgium agreed to recognize each other's borders as permanent and inviolate. Germany agreed to remain demilitarized in the Rhineland (as per the Versailles Treaty), and the three nations pledged not to attack each other. Britain and Italy acted as guarantors of the pact, promising to intervene if any of the signatory countries violated the agreements.

The pact marked Germany's return to international diplomacy and helped reintegrate it into European politics.

Impact:

The Locarno Pact was seen as a triumph of diplomacy and a step toward European reconciliation after the war. It reduced tensions between Germany, France, and Belgium and was celebrated as a success for the League of Nations and international cooperation.

It helped to foster a sense of security and stability in the 1920s, contributing to a brief period of peace in Europe.

Long-Term Consequences:

While the Locarno Pact initially improved relations, it did not prevent future conflict. By the early 1930s, Nazi Germany under Hitler would begin violating the terms of the pact, particularly in regard to the Rhineland.

Despite its optimistic start, the pact could not prevent the rise of militarism in the 1930s or avoid the outbreak of World War II.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

After World War I, there was a strong desire to prevent future wars. The League of Nations was created for this purpose, but it was seen as ineffective, especially after the United States refused to join.

In this context, the Kellogg-Briand Pact was proposed as an attempt to formalize peace efforts on a global scale.

The Agreement:

Named after its two primary architects, Frank B. Kellogg (U.S. Secretary of State) and Aristide Briand (French Foreign Minister), the pact was signed on August 27, 1928.

The agreement was signed by 15 nations initially, including major powers like the United States, France, Germany, Italy, and Japan.

The pact's core stipulation was that signatories would renounce war as a tool for resolving disputes and would instead seek to solve conflicts through diplomacy.

Impact:

The pact was hailed as a victory for diplomacy and international cooperation, reflecting the 1920s desire for peace after the devastation of World War I.

Over time, 62 countries eventually signed the pact, expanding its reach.

It was symbolic of the hope for a new era of global peace, without resorting to war.

Limitations:

While the pact sounded idealistic, it had no enforcement mechanism and lacked any clear consequences for violators.

The pact did not prevent future wars, as nations continued to engage in military conflicts. Most notably, Japan violated the pact in the 1930s by invading China, and Nazi Germany also disregarded the agreement as it began rearming for war in the 1930s.