Psych Chapters 1-14

What is the definition of psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Define science.

The systematic study of the natural world through observation, experimentation, and evidence.

Define behavior.

Any observable action or response of a person or animal.

Define mental processes.

Internal activities of the mind, such as thinking, feeling, remembering, perceiving, and problem-solving.

What is critical thinking?

The ability to evaluate evidence objectively and think logically.

How does critical thinking help us make better decisions?

By reducing bias, questioning assumptions, and relying on evidence instead of opinions.

What is the empirical method?

A method of gaining knowledge through observation, measurement, and experimentation.

Who is Wilhelm Wundt?

The founder of modern psychology who opened the first psychology lab in 1879.

Who is William James?

An American psychologist who founded functionalism and studied the purpose of thoughts and behaviors.

What is the difference between structuralism and functionalism?

Structuralism studies conscious experience's structure; functionalism studies the purpose of behavior and mind.

Biological/Neuroscience approach

Focuses on how the brain, nervous system, hormones, and genes influence behavior.

Behavioral approach

Focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through experience.

Psychodynamic approach

Focuses on unconscious thoughts, conflicts, and early childhood experiences.

Who is Sigmund Freud?

The founder of psychoanalysis who focused on unconscious conflicts and childhood experiences.

Humanistic approach

Focuses on free will, personal growth, and achieving one's full potential.

Cognitive approach

Focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, language, perception, and problem-solving.

Evolutionary approach

Focuses on how behaviors evolved through natural selection to help ancestors survive and reproduce.

Sociocultural approach

Focuses on how social situations and culture influence behavior.

Provide a definition/description of culture.

The shared beliefs, values, customs, traditions, language, and behaviors of a group.

What are examples of culture?

Religion, food, holidays, clothing, music, and language.

Biopsychosocial approach

Explains behavior through the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors.

What is a variable?

Anything that can change or be measured in a study.

What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis? Which comes first?

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction; a theory is a well-supported explanation. Hypothesis comes first.

What is an operational definition?

A precise definition of how a variable will be measured or manipulated in a study.

Define descriptive research and identify its types.

Observes and records behavior without manipulating variables. Includes case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, and interviews.

Define case study and provide an example.

An in-depth investigation of one person or small group. Example: studying one patient with a rare brain injury.

Define correlational research and provide an example.

Examines the relationship between two variables without changing either. Example: sleep hours and GPA.

Interpret the direction of a correlation coefficient.

Positive (+): variables increase/decrease together. Negative (-): one variable increases as the other decreases.

Interpret the strength of a correlation coefficient.

Closer to ±1.00 is stronger; closer to 0 is weaker.

Why can't researchers explain causation using correlational research?

Correlation only shows a relationship, not cause-and-effect. Other variables may explain the relationship.

What is an experiment?

A method where a researcher manipulates an independent variable to determine its effect on a dependent variable.

What does random assignment mean and why is it important?

Placing participants into groups by chance. It reduces bias and helps establish cause-and-effect.

What are the two types of variables in an experiment?

Independent variable and dependent variable.

What is the difference between independent and dependent variables?

The independent variable is manipulated; the dependent variable is measured to see the effect.

In an experiment, who is in the experimental group vs. the control group?

The experimental group receives the treatment; the control group does not (or receives a placebo).

Why does a researcher need both an experimental group and a control group?

To compare results and determine whether the treatment caused the observed effect.

Define placebo and the placebo effect.

A placebo is an inactive treatment. The placebo effect is improvement caused by belief in the treatment.

What is the difference between population and sample?

The population is the entire group of interest; a sample is a smaller selected subgroup.

What does it mean to have a random sample?

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

What is a naturalistic observation?

Observing behavior in its natural environment without interfering or manipulating.

Who is Francis Cecil Sumner, Ph.D.?

The first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology (1920) and 'Father of Black Psychology.'

What were Dr. Francis Cecil Sumner's contributions to psychology?

Established Howard's psychology department, researched racial bias, and mentored Black psychologists.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge resulting from experience.

Behaviorism

Psychological approach focusing on observable behaviors learned through environmental interactions.

Observational learning

Learning by watching and imitating others, such as copying a parent.

Classical conditioning

Learning by association, where a neutral stimulus becomes paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without learning.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

The natural, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially does not produce a specific response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response after learning.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Acquisition (Classical Conditioning)

The initial stage of learning when a neutral stimulus is paired with a US.

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

The weakening of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented alone.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

Generalization

Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination (Conditioning)

Learning to respond only to a specific conditioned stimulus, not similar ones.

Pavlov's Experiment: Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

The food, which naturally causes salivation in dogs.

Pavlov's Experiment: Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

The bell, after being repeatedly paired with food.

Little Albert: Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

The loud noise that naturally caused fear.

Little Albert: Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

The white rat, after being paired with the loud noise.

Little Albert: Generalization

Albert fearing rabbits, dogs, and fur coats in addition to the white rat.

Counterconditioning

Replacing an unwanted conditioned response with a new, desirable response.

Aversive conditioning

Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce that behavior.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a repeated, harmless stimulus over time.

Operant conditioning

Learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences, like reinforcement or punishment.

B.F. Skinner

Psychologist who developed operant conditioning and studied behavior using the Skinner Box.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something pleasant after a behavior to increase that behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant after a behavior to increase that behavior.

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant after a behavior to decrease that behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing something desirable after a behavior to decrease that behavior.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive steps toward a desired final behavior.

Learned Helplessness

Giving up trying to change a situation after experiencing repeated, uncontrollable failures.

Primary Reinforcer

A naturally satisfying stimulus that meets a biological need, like food.

Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus that gains value through association with primary reinforcers, like money.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is hidden until there is incentive.

Insight Learning

Solving a problem suddenly through understanding rather than trial and error.

Martha E. Bernal, Ph.D.

The first Latina to earn a Ph.D. in psychology in the United States.

Dr. Martha E. Bernal's Contributions

Researched behavior therapy and child psychology, and advocated for diversity in psychology.

What is plasticity (neuroplasticity)?

The brain's ability to change and form new neural connections.

When is the brain most plastic?

During childhood, although it can change throughout life.

What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?

The Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

What are the two structures of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

The brain and spinal cord.

What is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

What is the function of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

Carries information between the CNS and the rest of the body.

What is the function of the Somatic Nervous System?

Controls voluntary movements and carries sensory information to the CNS.

What is the function of the Autonomic Nervous System?

Controls involuntary functions like heartbeat, breathing, and digestion.

What is the function of the Sympathetic Nervous System?

Activates the fight-or-flight response during stress.

What is the function of the Parasympathetic Nervous System?

Calms the body after stress and restores normal functions.

What is stress?

The body's physical and psychological response to challenging or threatening situations.

What are stressors?

Events or situations that cause stress.

What are examples of stressors?

Exams, illness, financial problems, and relationship conflicts.

How does the fight-or-flight response prepare the body?

Increases heart rate, breathing, and energy while slowing digestion.

What are neurons?

Specialized nerve cells that transmit information throughout the nervous system.

What is the function of dendrites?

Receive messages from other neurons.

What is the function of the cell body (soma)?

Contains the nucleus and keeps the neuron alive.

What is the function of the axon?

Carries electrical impulses away from the cell body.

What is the function of the myelin sheath?

Fatty covering that speeds up nerve impulses.

What is the synapse?

The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.