Anth 112 : Complexity Emergence - Chpt. 9

Emergence of Complexity - corelates with

related to the emergence of agriculture

emerged at because of

hugely indicated by the emergence of monumental architecture

Stonehenge, England (3000BC to 1600BC)

Stonehenge is a type of megalithic monument

• megalith - large stone 

• this is the most well known, but not the only megalithic monument - extremely widespread throughout Britain, Ireland, and western Europe 

• in the Salsbury Plane in Southern England 

• radiocarbon dating - pits and ditches, animal bones, organic material 

• “used” between 3000 and 1600BC

• heaviest stone is 45,000lbs - coordinated effort needed to make 

• drug by wooden sledges, log rollers, animal fat as lubricant - large population to utilize 

Stonehenge - Stages of Construction

Stonehenge was built by Neolithic agriculturists

was constructed in stages over a 1000yr period

• at this time, had : cattle, sheep, pig, wheat, barley - and many ground stone tools, pottery

• Orkney, Scotland - Stones of Stenness, Rings of Brodgar - massive standing stones in a circular way, seem to predate Stonehenge

• travel, contact, sharing of ideas

• ritual, ceremonial, some burial purposes

• when Stonehenge was completed, it was a full circle, evidence of fallen or taken stones and used for farming techniques - lots have been reset with cement

• although stones have fallen, there are pits to locate the old presence

About 3000yrs ago - First Stage of Construction

Stonehenge was an earthen bank and ditch structure measuring 110m across

56 pits, called the Aubrey Holes, were places around the interior of the circle

many of the pits held cremated remains - 240 individuals have been identified from the remains in the pits - structure was used as a burial ground, cremation cemetery at first stages

• doesn’t seem to be specific burials of important figures

• have found sex and age, and even where they were from, not all local, may from western Wales

• some of the later added stones are also from Wales

• remains probably brought already cremated, held in pouches, most likely hide, bags are gone now

• have also been able to determine what fuel was used to cremate - also suggests that many cremated individuals were also from Wales

About 2500BC - Stones Added

the center of Stonehenge includes a horseshoe shaped arrangement of 5 sets of stones called trilithons - each trilithon consists of two standing stones capped with a lintel

• lintel stones - ones going across the top, door-like appearance

• trilithons are about 8m tall with some upright rocks weighing 45,000kg - stones were set into pits with about 2m of stone below ground surface

surrounding the center stones, is a circular enclosure of standing stones measuring about 30m across - were also capped with a continuous circle of lintel stones

there was also a double row of bluestones forming an arc withing the standing stone circle - much smaller compared to trilithons

• huge undertaking to accomplish

• fit together incredibly precisely, locked together, firmly made and packed circle

The Avenue 

was built following the addition of the sarsen stones to the monument

is a processional route that people followed as they approaches Stonehenge 

this 3km long avenue connects Stonehenge to the River Avon 

• pits have been discovered, indicating another smaller monument found at the end of the Avenue 

• the area had many monuments, all important 

About 2200BC - the bluestones were rearranged

compressed pits found indicating old position

not a double row anymore - inside circle

The Source of the Stone

• two types of stones used in the monument - the bluestones and the sarsen stones

• the bluestones weigh up to 4000kg and are about 2m tall; they have been sourced to the Western Wales in an area called the Preseli Mountains, over 200km away

• the sarsen stones are from an area called the Marlborough Downs; it is about 30km north of Stonehenge; many weigh up to 25,000kg and the largest is as much as 45,000kg

• have found the quarry site - where stones were gathered

• have found pits of where the bluestones were though to have been before - a different monument

• may have used waterways - on large barges, or drag over land

The Alter Stone 

a central stone called the Alter Stone has recently been sourced to northeastern Scotland 

700km away from the site - maybe the monument was used as a unification of areas 

functions of the stone is unknown, no proof of it being used as an alter, was laid flat on the ground 

Construction Methods

the builders of Stonehenge had levers, ropes, and the combined muscle power of a large group of people

the uprights and lintels were connected using mortise and tenon joints

• projections on top of rock, hole in the one layered on top - lock in together

tongue and groove joints connect the lintels that cap the outer circle

these are kinds of joints often used in wood-working

platforms of scaffolding - building timber platforms to raise them

“A” frames and ropes used to haul and lock in place

hammer stones would have been used to shape the stones used in the monument

Durrington Walls

*important to note that the landscape surrounding Stonehenge contains many monuments and burials - not just the one big monument*

Durrington Walls is a late Neolithic site 3km away from Stonehenge

is the site where the builders of Stonehenge lived

it may have had a population up to 4000 people, 1000 houses have been identified

the houses at the site date to the same period as the construction of Stonehenge

evidence of feasts, dairy use, butchered pig and cattle; feasting in the fall and winter - celebrations

• site includes one of the largest henge monuments in Britain - Woodhenge

• covers 42 acres

• occupied right around the time of standing stones being lifted into place, each house only occupied for a decade

• big earthwork structure made after the houses were abandoned - maybe a celebration of the finished work

• found another Avenue that connects it to the same river as Stonehenge

the Amesbury Archer

many burials have been discovered in the area surrounding Stonehenge

one remarkable discovery is the Amesbury Archer located 5km from Stonehenge

• burial contains many grave goods including Britain’s oldest gold objects

• this Early Bronze Age burial dates 2380BC

• seems to represent a person of high status, artifacts buried with him suggests he was an archer and metalworker - oldest metal works in Britain, including copper blades and gold hair tresses

• many artifacts, including the Beaker pottery, reveal continental European origins

• 100 grave goods found, x10 more than normally found during this time period

• stone wrist guard - indication of archer, arrowheads, flint and stones to make

• immigrant to area, not local - different types of pottery, different style, Beaker pottery - Beaker people arrived in the area around this time, bringing knowledge and tech

• stone projectile points, copper blades - marking the beginning of the Bronze Age in this area - cloak pins, pottery

the Archer’s Companion

• another grave close by - 20-25yrs old

• both have an unusual foot structure, genetic trait

• same hair tresses found as well, similar grave goods

• thought to be related, spent their lives in the Stonehenge area, discovered to be a third generation relative