Ornithology Midterm

1. Feathers

2. Lack of teeth

3. Fusion and reduction of bones

4. Pneumatic bones (connected with respiratory system)

5. Bipedal 

6. Digitigrade

7. Small size and mass

8. Forelimbs adapted for flight 

9. Centralized body mass

10. High metabolic rate

11. Highly developed central nervous system and vision

What are the 11 things all modern birds share?

1. Feathers

2. Lack of teeth

3. Fusion and reduction of bones

4. Pneumatic bones

5. Centralized body mass

Name 5 things that define a bird.

Taxon

A recognized group in a classification

Nomenclature

A naming protocol developed by Carl von Linnae (Carolus Linnaeus) which consisted of latinized scientific bird names- two names for each species

Hairy woodpecker

Picoides villosus

Class Aves

What Class are all birds in?

Order Piciformes

What order are living birds in?

29

How many orders of living birds are there?

The American Ornithologist’s Union

The official list of accepted English common names is maintained by?

By morphological similarities and dissimilarities

How were birds initially classified?

Phylogenetic (groups defined by having a common ancestor)

How are birds classified now?

Comparative method 

Studying evolution and adaptation by comparing morphology and behavior of species with different lifestyles. For example: Red Grouse of Great Britain remains dark coloured year-round while the similar Willow Ptarmigan of Newfoundland turns white in the winter. 

The comparative method

A phylogenetic classification is necessary for the use of which method?

Biogeography

The study of the distribution of plants and animals across the surface of the Earth

1. Nearctic

2. Neotropical

3. Palearctic

4. Ethiopian

5. Oriental 

6. Australasian 

7. Oceanic

What are the 7 major faunal regions?

Ethiopian: Ostriches

Neotropical: Toucan

Oriental: Fairy Bluebirds

Australasian: Emus

Oceanic: Kagu

List the birds that are endemic to each faunal region

Ostriches

Which birds are endemic to the Ethiopian faunal region?

Toucans

Which birds are endemic to the Neotropical faunal region?

Fairy Bluebirds

Which birds are endemic to the Oriental faunal region?

Emus

Which birds are endemic to the Australasian faunal region?

Kagu

Which birds are endemic to the Oceanic faunal region?

1. Single occipital condyle

2. Single middle ear bone, the stapes

3. 5-6 mandibular bones on each side of the jaw

4. Sclerotic ring supporting the eye structure

5. Scales on legs

6. Ankle sighted in the tarsal bones

7. Females are the heterogametic sex (ZW sex chromosomes)

What are the shared characteristics of birds and reptiles?

In the Jurassic Period

When did birds likely evolve?

Common Loon

Which birds have a Holarctic biogeography?

Osprey

Which birds have a cosmopolitan biogeography?

Trogons

Which birds have a Pantropical biogeography?

Emperor Penguins

Which birds have an Antarctic biogeography?

Hermann von Meyer

Who founded Archaeopteryx lithographica near Solnhofen quarry?

Feathers

What are the bird-like characteristics of Archaeopteryx lithographica?

1. Clawed digits on the forelimbs (unfused) + feathers

2. Toothed reptile-like jaws

3. Tiny cartilaginous sternum

4. Ribs without uncinate processes

5. Unfused tail bones

What are the reptile-like characteristics of Archaeopteryx lithographica?

1. Sinosauropteryx

2. Sinornithosaurus 

3. Caudipteryx

4. Microraptor 

5. Anchiornis

Name the protobird discoveries found in Liaoning, China, from the Jurassic-Cretaceous period. 

Coelurosaurian Theropods

The discoveries from Liaoning, China indicated that birds descended directly from?

Avialae

All dinosaurs with feathered wings used for flapping flight. Birds directly descended from these.

Fujanvenator

Give an example of a Therapod feathered dinosaur

The Miocene

Order Passeriformes radiated explosively during?

Feathers evolved:

1. For flight directly

2. For insulation (then subsequently adapted for flight)

3. For display via sexual selection (then subsequently adapted for flight)

4. For mechanosensation (then subsequently adapted for flight)

What are the 4 feather evolution hypotheses?

Speciation

The evolution of new bird species which proceeds by genetic divergence of isolated populations, such as the colonization of oceanic islands or isolation within continental landmasses by warming or cooling climates

Linneaus presented the first classification of birds based on superficial morphological similarity rather than by specific cirteria in Systema Naturae .

Describe the early species concept.

Lumping and splitting trends change as species concepts change

As species concepts change, what happens?

Biological Species Concept

Ernst Mayer stated that species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups

1. Reproductive isolation with geographical separation (ex: osprey)

2. Hybridization (ex: Mallard + Black Duck)

3. Problems with extinct forms

What are some problems of the Biological Species Concept?

Phylogenetic Species Concept

Charles Darwin states that the arrangement of the groups within each class, in due subordination and relation to each other, must be genealogical in order to be natural. Each taxon is monophyletic.

Leads to Splitting (ex: fox sparrow + murrelets)

What is the problem with the Phylogenetic Species Concept?

Taxonomic characters

Homologous structures shared by at least two taxa traceable phylogenetically to the same feature in an immediate common ancestor.

Parsimony

The explanation with the fewest evolutionary changes is the most likely explanation

Grebe + Loon

Longclaw + Meadowlark

Dovekie + Diving Petrel

Turkey Vulture + Black Vulture

What are some examples of convergent evolution in birds?

1. Electrophoresis of allozymes

2. DNA-DNA hybridization and melting point analysis

3. Mitochondrial DNA restriction site analysis and sequencing 

What are some molecular genetic techniques to solve the taxonomic character problem?

Mix of similar DNA melts at a higher temperature and mis of dissimilar DNA melts at a lower temperature

Explain Sibley and Ahlquist’s DNA-DNA hybridization and melting point analysis.

Keratin

Feathers are made of?

1. Aerodynamic lifting surface

2. Smooth aerodynamic coating to body

3. Insulation

4. Camouflage

5. Communication

6. Sensory

What are the 6 primary functions of feathers?

25,000

What is the maximum number of feathers on a swan?

2-4 thousand

What is the minimum number of feathers in a small passerine?

Calamus, rachis, barb, barbicel, barbule, and ramus

What are the parts of a feather?

Pennaceous

The hard, firm-vaned part of a feather

Plumulaceous

The soft afterfeather

1. Contour 

2. Flight

3. Down 

4. Filoplumes

5. Semiplumes

6. Bristles

What are the 6 feather types?

Down feathers

Feathers without a firm vein - interlocking fibers that trap air

Filoplumes

Feathers that are sensory in function (neither insulating or aerodynamic)

Semiplumes

Feathers that are space filling

Bristles

Feathers that are mostly protective in function. In raptors they are used as flycatchers

Ornamental Feathers

Feathers of contrasting plumes with highly modified adornments

Preening

The rearrangement and maintenance of feathers using the foot and bill. The barbicel-barbule system is reoriented, dirt is cleaned off, feathers are dried if wet, and parasites are removed.

Uropygial gland

Secretes an oily wax and fatty acid that maintains feather flexibility and waterproofing

Crested Auklets

Which birds use the uropygial gland for smell?

Pitahuis

Which birds use the uropygial gland for poision?

1. Analgesidae (feather mites)

2. Sarcoptidae (itch mites)

3. Mallophagidae (bird lice)

Name 3 parasites that affect feathers?

Molting

Feather growth and replacement occurs by this process.

Follicles

The growth of new feathers occurs within?

The inferior umbilicus

Remaining living material withdraws from the finished feather through?

Basic

Plumage that occurs after the breeding season

Alternate

Specialized adornments grown before the breeding season

Prebasic and Prealternate

The two molts are called?

1. Melanins (produces gray, black, and brown)

2. Carotenoids (produces yellow, orange and red)

3. Porphyrins (produce unusual colours such as magenta)

What are the 3 biochrome pigments?

Psittacofulvins

Produce the red colour in parrots

Spheniscins

Produce the yellow colour in penguins

Porphyrins

Produces the magenta colour in Turacos

Structural colours

Colour (blue, green, iridescence) is produced by diffraction off regular structures (plates or tubules) on the feather surface. Short wavelengths (blue and green) are reflected off the grating, while longer wavelengths are absorbed

Airfoil

Reduced air pressure on the upperwing surface creates lift proportional to the surface are of the airfoil

Gliding flight

Wing acts like an airplane’s wing 

Flapping flight

Flying that increases airspeed flow over lifting surfaces allowing dynamic soaring

Wing loading

The number of grams of body mass per square cm of wing surface area

Aspect ratio

The ratio of wing span squared / wing area. How long and narrow the wings are determines gliding efficiency.

Short and wide wings. Common Murre

What does a Low aspect ratio mean? Give an example of a bird that has a low aspect ratio.

Long and thin wings. Laysan Albatross

What does a high aspect ratio mean? Give an example of a bird with a high aspect ratio.

Dihedral

The angle at which the wings are held relative to the body. An adaptation for low flight speed.

Curvature

Non-flat wings in woodland species and gallinaceous birds

Penguin (small hard flippers)

Auk (air and water)

Shearwater/albatross (long narrow wings for high speed gliding)

Swift (long narrow stiff wings, almost all long primary)

What are some examples of birds with specialized wings?

Normal tail

The most common, basic tail which is compact and not vulnerable to damage. Very efficient with some limitations

Forked tail

The most efficient tail found in raptors, aerial insectivores (swifts and swallows) and terns (plunge diving seabirds). Susceptible to damage

Graduated Tail

A tail not efficient for flight. Functions in balance, as a prop (in woodpeckers), or as an ornament (in pheasants). Very damage resistant

Streamer Tail

Long streamer tails that produce only drag, possibly for ornamental function. Northern pintail, long-tailed ducks, and others have these.

1. Normal

2. Forked

3. Graduated

4. Streamer

What are the four types of tails?

38-44 degrees

What is the body temperature of a bird?

6-12 

How many air sacs do birds have?

9 (pair of cervical, pair of anterior thoracic, pair of posterior thoracic, pair of abdominal sacs, and one interclavicular air sac)

Most birds have how many air sacs?

Air sacs forcibly pump air through the lungs and aid in exhalation. 100% of gas is exchanged with each breath.

How do birds respirate?

Bird lungs consist of loops in which air passes

Why are bird lungs very different from other vertebrates?

Basal metabolic rate

The resting metabolic rate (inactive bird). Large birds have lower rates of this.

Active metabolism

Measured in relation to BMR; the energetic expense of flight

Insulation, pigmentation and behaviour

How do birds control their body temperature?