Environmental Issues and Economics in Food Production

What is One Health?

"The collaborative effort of multiple disciplines - working locally, nationally and globally - to attain optimal health for people, animals and the environment"

(AVMA, 2008).

What is the 'One Health' approach?

"Designing and implementing programmes, policies, legislation and research in which multiple sectors work together to achieve optimal public health outcomes"

(WHO, 2017).

Why use a one health approach?

•Applicable to many situations

•Zoonoses are a classic example e.g. Salmonella

How is a one health approach used to control zoonoses? (4)

•Targeted legislation (both animal and human)

•Improving environment (battery cages, rats etc)

•Human behaviour (incentives, penalties)

•Animal health and welfare (vaccination, env enrichment)

Who uses a one health approach? Core and additional examples.

•Core: medics, vets, scientists

•Additional: social scientists, mathematicians, computer scientists, business, government, NGOs and charities, general public etc. depending on level of activity.

What aspects of the environment does livestock production impact? (5)

- Energy consumption i.e. increased demand (fertiliser production, machinery, loss of non-renewables)

- Ecology (biodiversity and loss of species, landscape degradation)

- Air quality

- Soil quality (structure and contamination)

- Water quality (contamination, consumption, flooding)

How does livestock production impact air quality?

Causes in increased production of greenhouse gases (GHGs)

- N2O - due to feedstock production, has a ghg potential

- CO2

- CH4

- NH3

How does livestock production impact soil quality?

- Pollution (4)

- Soil structure (3)

- Ecology (3)

• Pollution

  • Use of agricultural pesticides

  • Use of veterinary medicines

  • Heavy metals

  • Pathogens

  • (salmonella infantis pESI)

• Change in soil structure

  • Compaction (from walking/living on it)

  • Increased water run off (from shallower root crops and compaction)

  • Erosion

  • feed crops

  • maize (causes erosions)

• Change in ecology

  •  Use of anthelmintics - (affecting invertebrate populations)

  • Use of antibiotics - (affecting microbial populations)

  • Compaction reducing ability for invertebrates/microbes to survive

  • avermectins (can affect invertebrates for mo after theyre applied)

How does livestock production impact water quality? (3)

• 70% of all fresh water used for agriculture

• Little incentive to be efficient (water is often cheap).

• Leaching of nitrates and phosphates into fresh water kills fish and organisms via eutrophication

  • causes the growth of algae → reduces amt of o2 → reduces biodiversity 

• meat production uses most water

What is eutrophication?

What is the consequence on aquatic bodies?

- Excessive nutrients in a water body causing overgrowth of algae.

- Causes oxygen deprivation in water, suffocating and reducing biodiversity

How is a OneHealth approach applied to eutrophication? (4)

- EU Nitrates Directive / 'Nitrate Vulnerable Zones'

- Farmers need to plan N addition to fields and must not exceed loading limit

- NVZs cover most of central and southern England.

- Limits eutrophication

How does livestock production impact energy consumption? (4)

- Energy consumption for agriculture ~2-3%

- BUT disproportionate production of GHGs (~20%).

- Heavily dependent on fossil fuels (e.g for fertilizer) particularly larger farms

- Energy used for meat >>> plants.

Larger farms more dependent on fossil fuels

How does livestock production impact ecology/biodiversity? (2)

- Humans and wild mammals are relatively small proportion of biomass but have a proportionally larger impact on the environment

- Major decline in biodiversity over past 100 years, due to increased domesticated mammalian species and humans

how have humans impacted the biodiversity changes

Land clearance

Pollution

Climate change

Monocultures

Selective breeding in livestock

Soil compaction/erosion

Deliberate policy (e.g. ‘pest’ species)

What are the risks to human and animal health (One Health) from a reduction in biodiversity? (5)

- Reliance on monocultures increases susceptibility to pests and diseases.

- More likely for ecosystems to collapse

- e.g. sea otter eats sea urchins which eat kelp forests - source of biodiversity in ocean

- Fluctuations in feed and food supply

- Extinction of potentially beneficial species

- Encourages emergence of new pathogens (2/3 of emerging are zoonotic)

Rapid change needed if climate change targets are to be met.

Methane responsible for 25% of global warming, 1/3 of this from livestock, mainly ruminants.

How must we evolve current livestock farming practices to ensure we have food in the future?

• Modifying existing systems.

• Circular system design.

• Green Shed Project (SRUC)

• Methane mitigation strategies

what is the green shed project

•Capture CH3 from bedding & animals.

•Pipe to CHP engine

•Bedding ► biodigester ► CHP

•Heating (winter) or polytunnels.

•Only used for finishing stage.

•No differences in welfare

• essentially capture the gas and recirculate it to make heat for in the winter

give some methane mitigation strategies

What revolutions have been suggested for current livestock farming practices

- Cultured meat → uses animal ells to grow meat

- Microbial protein → trying to reduce the amt of CO2 produced

what measures can be used to reduce water usage, what are setbacks of this though

• as drip irrigation could reduce water usage,

• leaching/pollution and costs, but higher initial capital costs.

How can a One Health approach counteract livestock production impacts on the environment? (3)

What is a limitation to this? (2)

Legislation/protocols to limit the damage

- Legislation: Nitrates Directive.

- Protocol: Drip irrigation to reduce water usage, leaching/pollution and costs

- Requires multi-discipline collaboration

- Can have higher initial capital costs (but long term cheaper)

What is the Green Revolution? (3)

- The development of more productive, drought-tolerant, pest-resistant, higher-yielding crops

- (Resulted in the use of genetic modification, breeding, nutrition and pharmacological drugs to intensify livestock production)

- In 90s

What is the trend of more industrialised farming?

- Fewer, larger farms

What are some consequences to industrialised farming relative to the One Health approach? (6)

• Impacts all aspects of One Health approach

• Pollution of groundwater

• Centralisation and concentration of production

  • - Physically separates management from workers (accountability, stewardship)

  • Farm is more vulnerable to animal and human disease outbreaks

  • Adverse physical, economic, mental and social health in rural communities (from exposure to pollutants)

  • Poorer welfare of animals - higher stocking density, increased risk of illness and pharmacological treatment

• Overwhelms local ecosystem capacity to process waste

How do the impacts of animal waste relate to the One Health approach? (4)

- Poses risk to animal, human and environmental health

- Contains large concentrations of zoonotic pathogen, many become more infectious with storage

- Poultry manure specifically related to Botulism outbreaks (zoonotic)

- Waste must be dealt with/disposed of safely following government guidelines

How can manure be disposed of? (3)

How does it relate to the One Health approach?

All must comply with government regulation

• Spread on your own land → May need permit from Environment Agency→ Stop animals grazing on land for 21 days (2 months for pigs)

• Process for sale as fertiliser → Need APHA approval → Generally sold as “prill”, dried pellets

• Transport and store offsite → to ABP Cat 2 storage facility→ comply with APHA guidance

what litter is botulism most linked with and why?

poultry

- resistant certain types

- low level in poultry

how to manage botulism risk from poultry manure

no bulk feathers/ carcasses/ legs

21 day/ 2 month rule applies

burn manure (APHA permit)

vaccinate against C, D botulinum (not in uk)

Rodent control

despite the botulism risk why is poultry manure liked

bc its cheaper than the increasing artificial fertiliser costs

if a botulism outbreak is linked to your farm what might you haveto show

• that you have taken the botulism measurements into account and that you have plans in place

What is the significance of Botulism outbreaks? (2)

- Zoonotic and cause high mortality in cattle and sheep

- Must remove poultry carcasses from litter now

in a crisis what are the two main ways of waste disposal, what are the issues

• Burn -> air pollution, spread if not done right

• Bury-> Environmental contamination, spread elsewhere underground and into water ect

what aspects can cause issues in a crisis

Scale of the crisis

Disposal methods

Public health

Environmental health

Logistics

What is the impact of emergency large-scale culling and carcass disposal in relation to the 'One Health' approach? (5)

- Emergency/crisis culling to counteract pathogenic outbreak requires disposal of an unexpected large amount of waste

- E.g. FMD outbreak 2001

- Can be done with several methods e.g. Rendering, Incineration, Pyre burning, Composting, Burial / landfill / mounding and Fermentation

- All these methods have significant negative impacts on the environment including energy use, environmental pollution and contamination

- Also significantly impact livelihoods of people/businesses involved in livestock production short term and long-term

rendering of carcasses, description and env impact

• closed system. mechanical and thermal treatment (sterilisation)

• energy use

incineration of carcasses, description and env impact

• fixed, whole-carcass, mobile air cutain, municiple.

• uses fossil fuels, particulate and gas emissions, possible ground water pollution

pyre burning of carcasses, description and env impact

• open burning carcasses on farm,

• air water, soil pollution, particulate matter from incomplete combustion

• incomplete could mean it could still spread

composting of carcasses, description and env impact

• open or closed grinding, mixing with organic material.

• extensive period of time, pathogen isn't inactivated, exposure to wildlife/ run-off

burial/ landfill/ mounding of carcasses description and env impact

• burial (onsite), landfill (commercial) mounding (above ground).

• contamination of ground water

fermentation of carcasses description and env impact

• anaereobic digestion. needs prior mechanical and thermal treatment.

• consumes and produces carbon based fuel (biogas). is the pathogen inactivated?

what were the lessons learnt from the fmd in 2001

Preparedness

Disposal methods

Public health

Environmental health

Logistics

Economics, behaviour and incentives

How has intensive livestock production affected global economics? (4)

• Green revolution resulted in:

  • Increased crop productivity

  • Globalisation (export of concentrates)

  • feed concentrates

• Intensive production has reduced production costs

• Good for middle & high GDP countries

• Increased grain costs for animals

• Bad for low GDP countries- grain too expensive and major source of human food

• Saturated market for meat in developed countries.

• Increased demand for meat in developing countries (FAO: the "Livestock Revolution").

what legislation relates to economics and welfare

EU Treaty of Amsterdam (1999)

Animal Welfare Act (2006)

“a life worth living” (minimum), DEFRA

Five Freedoms

Codes of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock

How is a One Health approach applied to intensified livestock production from the perspective of a:

- Vet

Vet

- Increased intensity = increased welfare regulations

How is a One Health approach applied to intensified livestock production from the perspective of an economist

Balance

- The cost of welfare as a 'public good' (guilt-free feeling of well raised produce has non-tangible value)

With

- The 'negative externality' (inevitable cost of farming and killing animals - non-tangible)

- Must balance the cost of animal providing welfare with cheaper cost of minimal welfare/suffering

• Animal preference irrelevant

• Welfare = human preference

  • ‘Public good’, welfare is a feel good factor

• Suffering = byproduct

• ‘Negative externality’

• Impact = productivity, consumption

negative externalities in regards to economic perspective

environmental degredation

climate change

public health

ecosystem services

market distortion and inefficiency

mitigating negative externalities in regards to economic perspective

internalise costs

sustainable practice

consumer awareness

what are diff ways we could define welfare

Affective state

Physical fitness and health

Naturalness of living conditions

Bias of stakeholder

How does animal welfare and economics in livestock production relate to a OneHealth approach? (4)

- Higher welfare standards translate to higher productivity, to a point.

- Environment and welfare costs not reflected in price of meat, subsidised by government

- Consumers don't want to pay for improved welfare despite acknowledging its importance

- International trade regulations constrains unilateral action by government

- I.e. governments need to collaborate if they want to increase costs for improved welfare or else they will make themselves vulnerable to losing trade (won't have competitive prices)

defining welfare from a consumer perspective

- affective state

- physical fitness and health

- naturalness of living conditions

depend on the bias of the stakeholder

in what ways does natural and maximal welfare contradict

shelter

protection from predators

better nutrition

better housing

how can maximal welfare and desired welfare with good production vary/ contradict

intensification

pharmaceutical intervention

genetic selection

what may minimal welfare but maximise productivity be explained as

genetic engineering

further intensification

controlled environment and nutrition

growth promoters

gut microbiota manipulation

in market centred economics what happens

• theres supply and demand

• cross point is what the price is

in selfish people economics what happens

- Only interested in their own needs and make decisions absed on their own needs

in exponential growth economics what happens

Gdp will always continue to increase

- Will extend into a vertical line -> but cant have infiniate wealth

Sigmoid: what is enough and sustainable

what is donut economy

• the centre is reliant on the environment

• Ecological measures of sustainablity

• Social measures of sustainability

• Need the support of society to make these necessary changes

by incorporating the donut economics into animal welfare what changes could be made

Purpose & ownership

Sustainability incorporates welfare

Tax food waste

Reduce variety

Urban agriculture

Reduce/scrap subsidies

Realistic pricing

why might governments need to help farms to maximise welfare which in turn affects and improves other areas

• it can be expensive

  • eg, netherlands broilers

  • Increasing the welfare meant that they used less antibiotics

  • But farmers cant afford to do this by themselves -> governments will eneed to help

what does globalisation do

Globalisation decouples productivity from local resources.

how does welfare affect prodcutivity

Higher welfare = higher productivity*

what are some negative extemities of welfare and economics

Consumers don’t want to pay

How do you assign costs?

WTO constrains nations