AQA Sociology - Media

Impact of media on behaviour

\-Influences view on social groups

\-Norms and values

\-Likes and dislikes

\-Stereotypes

\-Social life

Marcuse (1964)

Marxist - media ==transmits mass culture== which is ==injected== into the hearts of the population through ==ruling class propaganda== (marketing to influence choice).

Example: ==‘eat out to help out’== fake caring face of capitalism as it exploited us and put us in danger of getting covid but saved the economy - benefits ruling class

Norris (1999)

Media can influence your ==voting behaviour.==

Example: Brexit - media used to campaign and politicians used strategies they knew had influence on people’s views.

Gerber et al (1986)

Violence in the media leads to violent behaviour and anti-social behaviour.

Dworkin - Feminists

excessive consumption of pornography encourages sexual violence and negative attitudes to women.

Hypodermic syringe model (Feminism and Marxism)

media acts like a hypodermic syringe, injecting media tests into the ‘veins’ of the media audiences. Audiences are seen as unthinking and passive receivers of media texts, unable to resist the messages. Model suggests media can fill audiences with dominant ideology, sexist and racist images. The audience then immediately act on these messages. It is a simple view of the media as causing immediate changes in people’s behaviour.

HSM process

Media sends out messages through TV etc —> Audiences receives media —> Effects how audiences feels and thinks

HSM AO3 - post modernists

Post modernists would say that this is outdated because the media is so large that they can for their own views. We have an active audience in society so people have free will.

Feminism and the hypodermic syringe model:

Believe there is a casual link between porn and sexual violence. Morgan Dworkin

Morgan (1980)

Porn is theory and rape is the practice

Feminist - porn trivialises rape and encourages men to abuse and inflict pain on women it can affect marriage as men and women are less supportive of marriage.

AO3 against feminists and HSM

AO3: Morgan’s theory doesn’t involve sexual violence against men. ==Active audience and people have free will.==

==Hald (2009)== Men and women see porn as improving their sex iLife and attitudes towards the oppressed gender

==Malmuth (1984)== Porn only worsens the behaviour of those who are already aggressive and for the majority has no negative effects.

Criticisms of HSM

\-Assumes that the ==entire audience is passive and will react in the same way== to media content. Personal experience, different ages and social class will have different reactions to the media. A younger person may be likely to believe everything they see.

\-It ==assumes audiences are passive, gullible and easily manipulated.== People don’t believe everything seen on the media. People are more aware of false things in media and are often critical of what we see. Active audience - opinions - post modernists

\-It ==assumes the media have enormous power== and influence overriding all other socialisation. Social classes can have a large impact on attitudes and behaviour. We are all brought up in different ways. Home life - family setup, peers - education.

\-There is ==little evidence== that media content has the immediate effects on the audience. It is hard to study the effects and impact of media because different age groups and social classes consume different media so it is impossible to measure effects. Post modernists - free will. Just because you consume it doesn’t mean you will copy the behaviour

Buckingham

Children are much more ==media literate== and know the difference between real and fictional violence.

Fesbach and Sanger

(Catharsis) The found that ==screen violence is a safe outlet== for people with aggressive tendencies - catharsis. They looked at violent TV and the impact on teens and found that those that saw aggressive behaviour on TV were less aggressive.

New Right and media violence

would argue that ==moral decay is to blame for media violence== due to toxic childhoods from lone parent households and electronic babysitting

Copycat crime case study 1 - James Bulger

The murder of James Bulger was heavily blamed on the ==children watching and copying scenes from the film Childs Play 3.== There was a lot of mention of the links between the film and the crime in the UK press at the time, moral panic ensued.

==No conclusive links between videos and violence== - A detailed survey commissioned by Home Office failed to establish a clear link between violent videos and aggressive behaviour by kids. .

Media violence - case study 2 Columbine

==school shooting.== Complex and planned attack, bomb to divert fire fighters, bombs in cafeteria, 99 explosive devices and bombs in cars. 13 dead, 24 injured. The pair committed suicide and ==blamed their actions on violent video games and Marilyn Manson.==

Supportive evidence for media violence - Bandura

Showed ==3 groups a video of an adult being either aggressive or friendly== to a Bobo doll. Those who watched the aggressive, showed the same behaviour. Concluded that media content leads to copycat behaviour.

Supportive evidence for media violence - McCabe and Martin (2005)

Argue media has a ==disinhibition effect== - it convinced children that in some situations the normal rules in society can be abandoned and instead can resolve things through conflict or violence.

Supportive evidence for media violence - Newson (1994)

==Desensitisation==: Suggested that prolonged exposure to media violence may have a ==drip drip effect== on young people and result in them becoming desensitised to violence and become socialised into accepting violent behaviour as normal.

Criticisms of media violence

Buckingham, Fesbach and Sanger

Cultural effects model

(Neo-marxist) Media does have an effect on the audience. But doesn’t regard the audience as ==simply passive consumers of media texts==, instead they believe that it has more of a ==‘drip-drip’ effect==. Recognises that the media are owned and ==heavily influenced by the dominant== and most powerful groups in society their interests strongly influence the content of the media. This content is mainly in keeping with the dominant ideology.

The cultural effects model argues that media coverage of particular issues results in

most people coming to believe that m==edia perspectives on particular issues are correct== and these reflect a consensus that generally fails to challenge ruling class ideology. Examples include: __‘Benefit scroungers’__

Marxists - TV

argues that media has been ==dumbed down==- there has been a decline in series of programmes and we now celebrate celebs and consumption.

Curran (2003) Cultural effects

Tabloid newspapers are guilty of ideological practices, in their coverage of entertainment issues. Believes that by ==focusing on individual issues our attention is diverted from collective societal issues==. Popular press support a common sense view of the world which maintains and justifies existing inequalities.

Cultural effects - more active

doesn’t see the media as completely brainwashing it suggests that some media content helps those who manage (and benefit from) capitalist society to obtain the active consent of those who do not (mainstream audience). The ==extent of media effects will depend on the characteristics== of individuals with women, for example, resisting gender stereotyping in the media and black (and many white) people rejecting racist stereotypes.

Philo - GMG

media has a great deal of power in forming the way audiences view the world, suggesting that most people accept the dominant media account presented. He does acknowledge that audiences are ==active and in some cases can be critical== if they have access to alternative forms of information. ==1984/5 miners’ strike study== he found that audiences from different class and political backgrounds saw these images and interpreted them in the same way.

GUMG research

1. The sample ==saw the ideological message== that the miners were to blame
2. ==Sympathy for miners was weakened== by what people read and heard
3. Those who had ==not witnessed the strikes saw it as violent and legitimate==
4. ==Very few rejected the message== that the miners were to blame

Philo (2001)

if the audience have ==no direct experience or knowledge of an issue== then the ideological ==power of the media message will be strong and likely to shape an individual’s view== of the social world. The cultural effects model needs to be ‘dynamic’ and account for the fact that people may internalize or reject media messages based on their personal experiences.

Two step flow

Active and Passive audiences

Katz and Lazarsfeld

Personal relationships and conversations result in people modifying or rejecting media messages. They argue that ==social networks are usually dominated by an opinion leader==. Media messages go through two steps so media audiences are not directly influenced by media but choose to adopt a particular opinion. i.e. people of influence whom others in the network look up to and listen to. Media messages have to go through two steps or stages:

Two step flow process

Media sends out message → Opinion leader shares the media message to individuals → individuals decide if they agree or not

Strengths of two step flow

\-Not all audience is passive

\-Sees the impact of messages on some of the audience

\-Looks at audience relationship

\-==Considers background== of audience

Limitations of two step flow

\-Too deterministic with just two steps

\-==Excludes socially isolated==

\-Argues most of the audience are passive

\-Suggests there are twi types of audience member

Hall - Encoding

a Neo-Marxist suggests media texts are ENCODED with a particular meaning, which they expect media audiences to believe. Media is encoded by those who produce the media. This encoding is what Hall calls the dominant hegemonic viewpoint, which takes the dominant ideology for granted and accepts it as the normal, natural and only sensible way of viewing social events.

Hall - decoding

most audiences will interpret or ==DECODE media texts exactly as they were intended== because the views of the dominant class appear normal, natural and reasonable. However, this view recognises that some of the audience may DECODE or ==interpret the same texts differently, due to their social characteristics, for example their age, social class, gender or ethnicity.==

Morley (RAM)

·==Applied Hall’s approach== and based his study of audience interpretation on the 1970s news programme *Nationwide*, Morley found that audiences are ==much more active.==

·Audiences made up their own minds and there was significant opposition to the views contained in the news programme.

·==When people do accept the ideological position of the programme it was because they had personal knowledge and experience of the issue.==

Morley - types of reading

Preferred reading, negotiated reading and oppositional reading

Preferred reading

Audiences interpret or decode media texts in the same way they were encoded in the first place and in the way media producers would prefer.

For example, *most* welfare benefit claimants are workshy ‘scroungers’.

Negotiated reading

The media ==audience generally accept the preferred reading==, but may amend it to some extent, to fit their own beliefs and experiences.

For example, *most* benefit claimants are probably ‘scroungers’, but *not all* as they know of some really deserving cases.

Oppositional reading

A minority may reject the preferred reading altogether.

For example, *rejecting the view* of ‘scroungers’ and seeing claimants as really deserving as they face unemployment and inequality.

Evaluation of RAM

Preferred reading → supported by HSM

Negotiated reading → supported by cultural effects (drip drip)

Oppositional reading → supported by two step flow

Morley - subcultural groups

argues that the average person belongs to several subcultural groups and this may complicate a person’s reading of media content. For example, a young British College student may respond to Brexit in a number of ways:


1. Educated Student, who was not permitted to vote. Brexit is unfair as it will be their futures most at risk
2. British person, they may feel a sense of sympathy for those who voted to leave Europe, out of sheer frustration with the system
3. Young person, Current affairs is fairly boring and consequently not show much interest.

RAM

The point of the reception analysis theory is to suggest that ==audiences are not passive==

The way audiences decode media will be ==dependent on their own knowledge and experiences==, the social groups they belong to and their social characteristics. Media content is POLYSEMIC, i.e. it attracts more than one type of reading or interpretation.

Moral Panic

A moral panic is a wave of public concern about some exaggerated or imaginary threat to society, stiffed up by exaggerated and sensationalised reporting in the media.

Uses and gratifications

believes that the audience are the most ACTIVE and that the media has little effect on the audience. Rather than seeing the media as manipulating and influencing the audience, they believe that the audience use the media in various ways for their own various pleasures, needs and interests (gratifications).

Blumler and McQuail (1968)

identified a variety of uses and gratifications of the media: ==Diversion==, ==Personal relationships==, ==Personal identity==, ==Surveillance==, ==Background wallpaper==

Diversion (uses and grats)

Leisure, entertainment and relaxation purposes in order to ==escape from daily routine== and to get out from under problems, ease worries

Examples: watching TV, listening to a podcast

Who? people who work full-time

Personal relationships (uses and grats)

To ==keep up with family and friends through identification== with the media communities like coronation street. Can be used as conversation starter to establish new relationships

Examples: Social media, TV - modern family, emmerdale

Who? anyone

Personal identity (uses and grats)

To ==explore and confirm people’s own identities or to seek out new sources of identity== - trends

Examples: social media-trends, TV-reality TV

Who? More likely to be young people, Caitlyn Jenner

Surveillance (Uses and grats)

To ==access info about current affairs,== to find out about the world, make your minds up about issues that might affect you

Examples: TV-news, newspaper articles, social media

Who? Mainly older people (don’t tend to change opinions), young people and voters

Background wallpaper (Uses and grats)

To have on while doing other things

Examples: Music, TV, Radio

Who? Anyone

Park et al (2009)

used the uses and gratifications model in a web survey of those who were members of Facebook groups. They used Facebook for: diversion, personal relationship, personal identity and surveillance

Marxist criticisms of uses and grats

==‘Needs’== referred to by supporters of the model, may be ==manufactured by the media==. In a capitalist society, the mass media (and especially the advertising industry) ==promote the ideology that consumption and materialism are positive goals to pursue==. These manufactured needs or false needs (designer goods, sales, busy social life) are mistaken for social needs as the media convinces people that a consumer item is vital to their social wellbeing.

Strengths of uses and grats

\-This model ==recognises the role of the audience== – suggests they are active.

\-The model suggests that audiences hold the ==power and dictate the content.==

\-It recognises that people ==use the media in different ways.==

Weaknesses of uses and grats

\-The model ==underestimates the power of the owners.==

\-This model ==ignores how groups and interactions impact on how we use the media.==

\-The model ==ignores __structural__ factors== that mean __similar people__ respond in the __same__ way to the media.

Post modernists and media

suggest that we live in a ==media saturated society==, in which everyone’s view of the world is increasingly formed through media imagery and interpretations rather than personal experience.

Bagdikian (2004)

Concentration of Ownership ‘Lords of the Global village’

In ==1983 50 corporations== controlled all the media in USA and in ==1992 just 22 companies== owned and controlled all 90% of mass media in USA.

He argues that if each area of the media in USA was owned by individuals there would be 25000 owners.

By 2011 media ownership in the USA was totally dominated by ==only 5 corporations:==

Time Warner, Disney, News Corp, Viacom, and CBS.

Cyber media

There has been an ==increase in cyber media== but this is ==dominated by 4 main companies==: There is also concentration of ownership here, as traditional companies compete with cyber media organisations to control social networking sites for advertisement revenues:

Globalisation definition

Ongoing process that involves interconnected changes in the economic, cultural, social and political spheres of society.

==Traditionally most countries developed their own media but due to increased globalisation media is now shared worldwide.==  here has been consumer resistance to globalisation of the media – ==Marxists predicted that this== would happen – that media companies would join forces and take over.

McPahil (1981)

==Electronic colonialism== - To describe the way countries are culturally penetrated by American values through films etc. Through ‘Hollywoodisation’ and more so through social networking sites

British Print Media - Curran

==Concentration of ownership== of British newspapers is ==not a new phenomenon==. In 1937, four men, known as the ‘==press barons’==- owned nearly one in every two daily newspapers sold in the UK. Today seven companies dominate newspaper ownership some of which are controlled by specific individuals:

Murdoch

In the 1950s and 1960s, Murdoch acquired a number of ==newspapers in Australia and __NZ__ then expanded to the __UK__== in 1969, taking over the __*News of the World*__, followed closely by __*The Sun*__. In 1981, Murdoch bought __*The Times*__, his first British __broadsheet__.

In 1986, keen to adopt newer electronic publishing technologies, Murdoch consolidated his UK printing operations __HarperCollins__ and __*The Wall Street Journal*__ .

Murdoch formed the British broadcaster __BSkyB__ in 1990 and, during the 1990s, expanded into Asian networks and South American television. By 2000, Murdoch's News Corporation owned over 800 companies in more than 50 countries, with a net worth of over $5 billion.

Considerable parts of the British media industry are owned and controlled by global corporations. The power of these companies has led to a number of trends: 

Horizontal integration, Vertical integration, Diversification, Synergy, Technological convergence and global conglomeration

Horizontal integration

Cross media ownership - ==where big media companies own a wide range of media.== TV, radio, cinema etc.

Examples: BBC, ITV, Netflix, Disney, Sky

Vertical integration

Some media companies are ==trying to control all aspects of the media to ensure maximum profit==

Examples: Murdoch, Amazon, Sky

Diversification

When companies ==branch out into a new are of media to spread the risk of loss.== This may be unrelated to the media but it means if they lose money in one they have a safety net

Examples: Amazon, Apple, Meta

Synergy

Media companies are ==using their different interests to package products in several ways== for example a film soundtrack, game, and ringtone as well as clothing and merchandise.

Examples: Disney, Football

Technological Convergence 

Relatively new concept = ==several technologies in one product==. For example you can use you phone, TV, computer can access the net.

Examples: Apple, WhatsApp

Conglomeration 

Where media ==companies operate in the global market== producing for example newspapers in several countries.

Examples: Murdoch, Elon Musk, Amazon

How do governments control media output

Blackmail, Leaking - CCTV/recordings of briefings, Press conferences, Bribes, Surveillance - work email, Censor media, Refusing to give broadcasting licenses and Desensitisation

Censorship - Offcom

In 2003, the Office of Communications was established as a ==supposedly powerful regulator of the mass media==, with responsibilities across television, radio, telecommunications and wireless services

Censorship - The BBC

regulated by the BBC Trust and partly by OFCOM. The government also has the opportunity to influence the corporation over 10 years when the licence fee is determined.

Censorship - IPSO

Independent Press Standards Organisation - established in 2014 to regulate the newspaper and magazine industry replacing the discredited Press Complaints Commission (PCC). 

Pluralism

No dominant ruling class, but ==many competing groups with different interests.== ==All different interests are represented in the media.== Owners don’t directly control the content of the media, rather, what appears in the media is driven by the wishes of consumers – audiences will simply not watch TV programmes or buy newspapers that do not reflect their views. The mass media is also essential in a democratic society to ensure there is a platform to express the views of each political group.  ==Most people get their knowledge of politics from the media – pluralists argue that owners are objective and impartial facilitators to this process.==

Economics of media ownership

Pluralists suggest that the ==behaviour of media ownership is constrained by the market.==

Free market means that media owners compete against each other to attract an audience.

==__READERS HOLD THE POWER__== – to buy or not to buy? If unhappy, they can change to a new paper.

James Whale (1977)

Media owners have global problem of trade investment to occupy their minds so ==do not have time to think about the day to day running of their media business.==

4 main areas of the pluralist view on media

1. Media diversity
2. Public service broadcasting
3. State controls
4. Media professionalism

Media diversity

Pluralists argue the range of media products available is ==extremely diverse== and as a result ==all points of view are catered for.==

Therefore, it is ==not biased== as all views are accounted for. The media mirrors what the audience see as important.

TV shows - sexuality, ethnicity and race

Public service broadcasting

a significant share of the media in the UK is taken by public service broadcasters and controlled by the state.

BBC (1926) is controlled by the state and this outweighs the bias of the public sector.

Criticism: ==Not always impartial== - Jimmy Savile case, silenced anyone who spoke out and let him continue working. This was for the good of themselves as he brought in money.

State Controls

pluralists argue that the ==media is restricted by state controls.== Some societies have banned certain media in order to reduce dominant viewpoints.  E.g., North Korea, China. In the UK, we also have OFCOM and pluralists would argue this prevents bias media content.

Media Professionalism

==Pluralists stress professionalism of journalists and editors and they argue they would never compromise their independence== and have too much integrity to be biased.

Journalists in ==Milly Dowler case== hacked her phones voicemail to gain info. Unprofessional.

Investigative Journalism

Pluralists also point out that the media have a strong tradition of investigative journalism which has often ==targeted those in power==. In recent times the media highlighted the incident with Dominic Cummings travelling to see his family in the North-East during lockdown.

Pluralists suggest that ==an audience does not accept what is fed to them through the media. All audiences are critical and diverse (uses and gratifications - most active)==

Strengths of pluralism

\-==Wide range of media that reflect large range if interests,== including those that challenge dominant ideology

\-The ==fight for audiences and competition== with other companies means mass media ==have to cater to audiences taste or they will go out of business==

\-==Diversity of media enables investigative reporting== to take place - an challenge power and interests of dominant class

\-==Journalists aren’t pawns of employers==, have some editorial honesty and independence and often critical of dominant ideals

\-Curran argues that there has been an ==increase in cheque book journalism and a serious decline in serious and political news.== Therefore they are no longer writing stories that could bias opinion as people are focussed on human interest and celeb gossip articles.

Limitations of pluralism

\-Hegemonic theorists - people have been socialised by the media themselves into the belief that they have been provided with what they want. The ==media has created their tastes so what the audience want is really what the owners have told them they want.==

\-==Media owners strongly influence== which is appointed at senior levels of the media and all those in power usually share similar views and an outlook on the world.

\-While managers, journalists and TV producers have some independence they work within the constraints placed on them by the owners. This then gives the powerful members of society more influence.

\-==Not all groups in society have equal influence on editors and journalists to get their views across and only the rich== have the money to launch media companies that they can use to get their views across.

\-The owners have on numerous occasions ==sacked uncooperative editors== and both governments and rich individuals have brought political and legal pressure to stop programmes that threaten their interests.

\-The ==pressure to attract audiences does not increase media choice but limits it== – the ==media declines in quality and news gets sensationalised== as the media targets the mass market with unthreatening and unchallenging bland content.

Miliband (1973)

Media plays an important role in ==spreading the dominant ideology.== He argues that the media control access to the knowledge which people have about what is happening in society, and ==encourage them to accept the unequal society in which they live==. The media creates a climate of conformity among the mass of the population which justifies the rule of the rich and powerful and leads to a state of false class consciousness. ==Ideas that challenge or threaten the status quo are ignored==. See the media as an instrument through which the ruling class is able to manipulate media content and media audiences in its own interests.

Strengths of the Manipulative/Instrumental Model 

1. There is evidence to suggest that ==owners manipulate the content of their media==. E.g. ==Murdoch supported the war in Iraq as did his papers. Spreading dominant ideology,== people will believe its the only source of info, passive will see as factual (Philo and the mines)
2. In 2007 Murdoch admitted to the communication committee he was “hands on both economically and editorially”  ==Murdoch had overall control (James Whale - don’t have time to think about day to day running)==
3. The Leveson enquiry also highlighted the complex ==relationship between governments and media owners. Hacking==

James Whale AO3

Hierarchy, people hired to complete work. Individualism, depends on owners (Postmodernism).

\-==Owner has no control and can’t interfere== due to the complexity of the content

\-==Media give public what they want==

\-Concentration of media ownership is to ==maximise audience size and reduce costs==

\-==Globalisation== occurs as the search for ==new audience== to increase profits

Weaknesses of the Manipulative Model 

1. The ==state regulates media ownership== so no one person has too much influence. (Offcom)
2. ==Audiences are active and able to understand media messages==. (==RAM==, decoding and encoding - oppositional readers - Hall)
3. Neophilliacs suggest the rise of digital media and citizen journalism has led to a ==decline in the influence of the dominant ideology.  Increase in cheque book journalism== so decrease in serious and political news so dominant ideology isn’t being spread. ==New media== - social media
4. Pluralists argue the wide range of media and the need to make profit gives the audience not the owners the power. Media diversity - ==need to cater to peoples needs to make profit, reduces dominant ideology.== Audience mirrors what is seen as important. Reader holds the power, audiences more active.

Supportive evaluation of marxism

It also implies that media ==owners are in an ideological conspiracy to brainwash the population==- they only have anecdotal evidence that the media damages democracy. The key debate here is to what extent is the audience Active or Passive

·In Italy, Berlusconi’s control of 3 TV stations that reached 40% of the viewing population led to his party winning the election in 1994 and him becoming Prime Minister.

·American law restricts cross media ownership, unlike the UK where Rupert Murdoch dominates media companies in terms of ownership

AO3 Curran of marxism

Curran (2003) examined the British Press and suggested that media interference is strong he suggests 4 distinct periods where the integrity of the journalists have been affected by the owners.

==·1920-1950 rise of the press barons==- controlled the content of the media based on own interests.

·==1951-1974== Curran argues that this was the ==pluralist phase== and saw a ==rise in investigative reporting.==

==·1974-1992== Owners such as ==Murdoch== created papers for profit not ideological viewpoints. Murdoch shifted his papers to support ==right wing politics to capitalise on the interest and make money.==

·==1997==- Present day Curran argues this is based on ==global conservatism==- in 1997 Murdoch encouraged his papers to support Blair.

The Dominant Ideology or Hegemonic Approach: 

NEO-MARXIST approach Mass media ==spreads a dominant ideology== justifying power of the ruling class. It differs from the manipulative approach by suggesting this is ==not carried out by the direct control of owners== and direct manipulation of journalists, media content and the audience.  It recognises the power of the owners, but suggests that they rarely interfere in media content. Rather this approach emphasizes the idea of HEGEMONY:

Hegemony was developed by ==Gramsci== and refers to the idea that through the spread of ideology other classes are ==persuaded to accept their values and beliefs become  part of everyday  common sense.==  This approach suggests that the dominant ideology of the ruling class is shared by media managers and journalists so they ==spread the dominant ideology by choice as it seems reasonable and sensible rather than that’s what they are told to do by media owners.==

The Dominant Ideology or Hegemonic Approach ideas

1. ==Owners of the media rarely have direct control== of the content of the media. Day – to – day control and the media is left in the control of the managers and journalists. - James Whale
2. Media managers and journalists while inevitably influenced by the desire not to upset the owners and ==protect their careers also they need to attract audiences and advertisers - the dominant ideology often helps attract audiences.==
3. Journalists support the ideology as they tend to be ==white, middle class and male== and are socialised into professional values. Any ideas that challenge the status quo seem unreasonable, extremist and not to be taken seriously.
4. These ==common-sense assumptions shared by journalists mean the audience are only ever exposed to a limited range of opinion.==

GMG

Suggests ==media does not support capitalist idea==s but that this is a by-product of the social back grounds of the journalists.

Top 100 journalists 54% independently educated.

GMG claims journalists believe these views as they ==believe that they appeal to the majority of their audiences.==  They believe everyone who does not believe this is an extremist.

They are ==motivated by profit not controversy.==

Agenda setting -GMG

Philo looked at the media coverage of the 2008 banking crisis. He argues that the ==media presented views and solutions from the establishment-== the very people who had caused the crisis and wished to maintain the status quo

Postmodernists view on mass media

Postmodernist sociologists argue that ==UK society has undergone fundamental changes in recent decades we now live in a ‘postmodern age’.== Service industries concerned with the processing and transmission of information, and knowledge and servicing consumption, e.g. the mass media, government, finance and retail, have become more important than the factory production of manufactured goods.

Postmodern life has ==become so chaotic that metanarratives (or blanket explanations) are no longer relevant as people make choices based on a range of individual factors - Lyotard.==

Postmodernist argument for mass media - Saturated

They argue that ==society has become media saturated==. They argue that as a result popular culture now shapes our identity rather than family, community, gender or class.

Examples - TV dumbed down, not educational - reality TV, social media increasingly popular opinion leaders can change views

Postmodernist argument for mass media - choice

The media ==shapes our consumption as we now have greater choice and global influences.==

Examples: Social media, Globalisation - amazon, targeted adverts

Postmodernist argument for mass media - identity

They argue the ==media defines our identity and lifestyle== and determines how we think and feel about ourselves. We can ==pick and mix parts== of the media to shape our sense of self.

Examples: influencers - opinion leaders as they promote things

Postmodernist argument for mass media - Consumption

The media tells us that the ==consumption of brands== and logos should be a large part of our identity.

Examples: influencers promoting big brands often expensive